Analyzing the Challenges of School Privatization Policy and Its Implications for Teachers’ Professional Status

perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X3060-82282026-07619124articleAnalyzing the Challenges of School Privatization Policy and Its Implications for Teachers’ Professional Statusaliakbar tajmazinanizdarvishi@ut.ac.ir1zahra darvishizahradarvishi29@gmail.com2Associate Professor, Department of Cooperatives and Social Welfare, Faculty of Social Sciences, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, IranPh.D. Student in Social Welfare, Faculty of Social Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran.  Analyzing the Challenges of School Privatization Policy and Its Implications for Teachers’ Professional Status   Aliakbar Tajmazinani<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Zahra Darvishi<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>   The policy of school privatization in Iran, despite its economic objectives, has created profound professional and social challenges for teachers. The aim of this study is to analyze the challenges of privatization for teachers’ professional status and professional development. This research was conducted using a qualitative approach and thematic analysis method. The participants included 21 teachers and key informants in the field of private and public schools, who were selected through purposive sampling and interviewed in depth. The findings indicate that school privatization has led to consequences such as the reduction of teachers’ cultural and strategic role, the weakening of professional development and motivation, occupational and economic insecurity, a decline in educational quality and superficial learning, and disruption in teacher-student relationships. The results show that, in its current form, privatization has severely undermined teachers’ status and job security by reducing their role from a cultural pillar to a mere instructional executor. To reform this trend, it is recommended that the government revise the labor laws governing private schools and prioritize measures such as requiring long-term contracts, ensuring insurance and benefits, establishing supportive unions, and changing school evaluation criteria from a result-oriented approach to a process-oriented and skill-based approach.   Keywords: Privatization, Schools, Professional Status, Teachers, Human Capital.   Introduction In recent decades, privatization has become one of the most influential trends in educational reform across the world. Governments have often promoted private sector participation as a strategy for reducing public expenditure, increasing efficiency, diversifying educational provision, and expanding parental choice. From a market-oriented perspective, privatization is assumed to create competition among schools, improve accountability, and encourage better educational outcomes by making institutions more responsive to families’ demands (James, 1987; Teske & Schneider, 2001). Within this view, schools are treated as service providers and parents as rational consumers capable of selecting the best educational options for their children. Despite these claims, privatization has generated extensive criticism, particularly from scholars who regard education as a public and social good rather than a market commodity. Critics argue that the expansion of private schooling may deepen inequality, weaken democratic accountability, and reorient educational goals toward profitability, branding, and customer satisfaction. In such contexts, teachers are often among the first groups affected by market reforms. Their roles, autonomy, and employment conditions may be reshaped in ways that undermine their professional identity and social position. Rather than being recognized as intellectual and cultural agents, they may increasingly be viewed as flexible labor operating within competitive institutions. This issue is especially significant in countries where privatization has grown faster than the development of effective regulatory mechanisms. The Global Education Monitoring Report (2022) warns that privatization can create fragmented systems and unstable working conditions for teachers if not accompanied by strong governance. In Iran, the expansion of non-governmental schools has become an important part of educational policy, yet discussions have focused more on efficiency and school performance than on the professional consequences for teachers. The present study addresses this gap by examining the challenges of school privatization policy and its implications for teachers’ professional status.   Methodology The study employed qualitative design using thematic analysis. This approach was selected because the research aimed to understand participants lived experiences and interpretations of privatization rather than to test predefined quantitative variables. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with 21 participants who had direct knowledge of non-governmental schools, including teachers and educationally informed individuals. Participants were selected through purposive and theoretical sampling to capture diverse experiences and to ensure relevance to the research problem. Interview questions focused on teachers’ working conditions, job stability, salary and benefits, school management practices, professional development opportunities, relations with parents and students, and perceptions of educational quality. Data collection continued until theoretical saturation was reached. All interviews were transcribed and coded in NVivo 10. Thematic analysis followed a systematic process: repeated reading of transcripts, open coding, categorization of related codes, identification of recurrent patterns, and final refinement of major themes. This process resulted in five central themes and eighteen subthemes. To enhance trustworthiness, member checking was used, allowing participants to review and confirm interpretations. Ethical considerations such as informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation were observed throughout the study.   Results The findings reveal five major dimensions through which privatization affects teachers’ professional status. First, participants described a reduction in teachers’ cultural and strategic role. In many non-governmental schools, key decisions are concentrated in the hands of school owners and administrators. Teachers have limited influence over policy, curriculum-related decisions, and institutional direction. As a result, they are often treated as implementers rather than as professional contributors to school culture and strategy. Second, the study found a weakening in professional development and motivation. Participants reported that many private schools provide limited support for sustained learning, pedagogical reflection, or collaborative growth. Training activities, when available, are often instrumental and linked to immediate institutional goals. This weakens intrinsic motivation and contributes to professional stagnation. Third, occupational insecurity emerged as one of the most significant themes. Teachers described short-term contracts, uncertain renewal, delayed or low salaries, inadequate insurance, and weak retirement prospects. Employment security was often tied to enrollment levels and parental satisfaction rather than professional competence. This created chronic anxiety and reduced teachers’ sense of dignity and long-term stability. Fourth, privatization was seen as contributing to a decline in educational quality through superficial learning. Participants explained that schools often emphasize grades, examination performance, and parental approval because these are visible indicators that help maintain market reputation. Consequently, deeper learning, critical thinking, and holistic education may be sidelined in favor of short-term measurable results. Fifth, participants highlighted the disruption of teacher-student relationships and the weakening of teacher authority. In a customer-oriented school environment, parents may view themselves as clients whose preferences should override educational judgment. Managers, in turn, may prioritize parental satisfaction over pedagogical principles. This undermines teachers’ authority and alters the ethical basis of educational relationships.   Discussion and Conclusion The study indicates that school privatization is not simply a technical policy for improving efficiency; it is a structural shift that reshapes the teaching profession. Although privatization may offer organizational flexibility and increased parental choice, its consequences for teachers in this study were largely negative. Teachers experienced reduced autonomy, weaker participation, insecure employment, limited professional growth, and growing pressure to satisfy market expectations. These findings are consistent with critical interpretations of educational marketization. Shore and Wright’s (2015) concept of audit culture helps explain why measurable outcomes and institutional image become more important than deeper pedagogical values. The results also align with international studies showing lower job security and professional support in private schools (Akhtar et al., 2010; Chudgar & Sakamoto, 2021; Mohammad & Borkoski, 2024). Overall, the evidence suggests that evaluating privatization solely in terms of efficiency is inadequate. Teachers’ dignity, autonomy, and professional security must be treated as central indicators of educational quality.   References Akhtar, N., Hashmi, S. A., & Naqvi, S. I. H. (2010) A comparative study of job satisfaction in public and private school teachers at secondary level. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4222–4228. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.668">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.668</a> Ball, S. J. (1993) Education markets, choice and social class: The market as a class strategy in the UK and the USA. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 14(1), 3–19. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0142569930140101">https://doi.org/10.1080/0142569930140101</a> Baudrillard, J. (1994) Simulacra and Simulation (S. F. Glaser, Trans.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9904">https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9904</a> Chudgar, A., & Sakamoto, J. (2021) Similar work, different pay? Private school teacher working conditions in India. 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M., Nganga, L., Thapa, S., & Mwangi, A. M. (2020) Privatization of early childhood education (ECE): Implications for social justice in Nepal and Kenya. Policy Futures in Education, 18(6), 700–724. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210320922111 Mahmoudzadeh, A. (2023, October 9). Activities of non-government school teachers to be regularized. Iran Daily. Retrieved October 8, 2024. (In Persian) Mehralizadeh, Y. (1998) Privatization of schools in Iran. Journal of Educational and Psychological Sciences, 3(3–4). (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22055/psy.1999.16443 Mohammad, A., & Borkoski, C. (2024) Organizational conditions and teacher turnover in private schools of United Arab Emirates. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100801. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100801">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100801</a> Mohammadpour, A. (2011) Antimethod: Logic and design in qualitative methodology (Vol. 1). Tehran: Sociologists Publications. (In Persian) Molaei, A., Kalbasi, A., & Zehbion, Sh. (2023) Privatization of education in Iran: Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (A case study of evaluating the educational service purchase plan in primary schools). New Approaches in Educational Management, 14(1), 143–157. (In Persian). <a href="https://doi.org/10.30495/jedu.2023.28502.5720">https://doi.org/10.30495/jedu.2023.28502.5720</a> Papanastasiou, E. C., & Zembylas, M. (2005) Job satisfaction variance among public and private kindergarten school teachers in Cyprus. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(3), 147–167.  <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2006.06.009">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2006.06.009</a> Shore, C., & Wright, S. (2015) Governing by numbers: Audit culture, rankings and the new world order. Social Anthropology, 23(1), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8676.12098 Strathern, M. (Ed.). (2000) Audit Cultures: Anthropological Studies in Accountability, Ethics and the Academy. New York: Routledge. Teske, P., & Schneider, M. (2001) What research can tell policymakers about school choice. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20(4), 609–631. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.1020">https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.1020</a>.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Associate Professor, Department of Cooperation and Social Welfare, Faculty of Social Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran. tajmazinani@aut.ac.ir https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4379-3461 <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Ph.D. Student in Social Welfare, Faculty of Social Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran. zahradarvishi29@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7899-3186http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/Article/52775Privatization Schools Professional Status Teachers Human Capital.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X3060-82282026-076192550articleBehavioral Deviations among Students in Iran: A Causal Layered Analysis of the Role of Family and School in the Age of Cyberspacesaeid Gholamisaeidgholami24@yahoo.com1Ph.D. in Sociology of Social Issues of Iran, Department of Social Sciences Education, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran. Behavioral Deviations among Students in Iran: A Causal Layered Analysis of the Role of Family and School in the Age of Cyberspace   Saeid Gholami<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a>   In the digital era, behavioral deviations among Iranian students Including cyberspace addiction, cyber-aggression, academic decline, and reduced real-life interactions have become a major challenge for families and schools. This study aimed to conduct a layered analysis of the role of family and school in the emergence and mitigation of these deviations, employing the qualitative approach of Causal Layered Analysis (CLA). CLA enables a four-layered examination of the issue namely, the litany, systemic causes, worldview, and myth/metaphor thereby moving beyond superficial analyses to explore its structural, discursive, and mythic roots. This qualitative study was based on semi-structured interviews with 32 participants from Hamedan, Iran. Purposive sampling was employed with an emphasis on role diversity, and theoretical saturation was considered the criterion for sample adequacy. Data was analyzed according to the four layers of CLA. The findings showed that, at the litany layer, public discourse was characterized by anxiety and judgment; at the systemic causes layer, inadequate parental supervision and school inefficiency were prominent; at the worldview layer, a conflict between traditional Iranian-Islamic discourse and individualistic digital discourse emerged; and at the myth/metaphor layer, metaphors such as the “victim of the digital storm,” the “weary guardian” (family), and the “isolated fortress” (school) revealed underlying beliefs. Three future scenarios were identified: continued crisis (dark), minimal adaptation (gray), and positive transformation (desirable), achieved through discursive reconstruction and institutional empowerment. The findings suggest that strengthening the roles of family and school through media literacy education, participatory programs, and national policymaking may contribute to reducing behavioral deviations and promoting constructive use of cyberspace.   Keywords: Behavioral deviations, Cyberspace, Causal Layered Analysis, Family, School   Introduction In the digital era, the widespread proliferation of communication technologies and cyberspace has brought about fundamental transformations in the behavioral, social, and psychological patterns of the younger generation, particularly students. Behavioral deviations among students in cyberspace include addiction to social networking platforms, cyber-aggression, academic decline, reduced real-life family interactions, exposure to inappropriate content, identity crises, and engagement in high-risk digital behaviors. These phenomena have become one of the primary challenges facing educational and familial systems in developing societies, including Iran. Such deviations not only threaten individuals' mental and physical health but also affect the stability of cultural, social, and value structures, potentially leading to a decline in social capital and an increase in psychological disorders. With the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the forced transition of education to virtual platforms, the use of digital technologies among Iranian students increased substantially. This sudden shift, occurring without adequate cultural and educational infrastructure, was accompanied by various physical problems (e.g., visual and musculoskeletal disorders), psychological issues (including anxiety, depression, and stress), and behavioral difficulties (such as aggression and social withdrawal). Previous studies have indicated that cyberspace addiction is positively associated with psychological factors such as internalizing problems, loneliness, social anxiety, and problematic Internet use, and may serve as a strong predictor of cyber-deviant behaviors. Furthermore, problematic social media use among Iranian adolescents has been linked to lower perceived social support, lower self-esteem, and sensation-seeking tendencies. At the global level, research has increasingly examined the transformation of peer relationships within social media environments, suggesting that the transformative characteristics of cyberspace can reshape adolescents' social experiences and potentially contribute to cyber-deviant behaviors. In Iran, previous studies have emphasized the role of key institutions, particularly the family and school. Inadequate parental supervision, diminished school functioning during periods of virtual education, exposure to inappropriate online content, and impaired family functioning have been identified as important structural factors. Parenting styles, family functioning, and parental media literacy have also been identified as significant predictors of Internet addiction. Prior research has predominantly concentrated on the surface layers of the problems such as prevalence statistics of addiction, aggression, or academic decline and has employed one-dimensional approaches. These studies lack an in-depth exploration of structural, discursive, and mythic causes. The distinctive feature of the present study lies in its application of Causal Layered Analysis (CLA), which enables a multidimensional and transformative examination of the issue, moving beyond observable symptoms to uncover deeper social, cultural, and mythic roots. The main objective of this study was to conduct a layered analysis of the role of family and school in behavioral deviations among Iranian students in the cyberspace era, with particular emphasis on identifying underlying causal layers, developing future scenarios, and proposing fundamental policy solutions. The research questions were as follows: (1) What are the common behavioral deviations among Iranian students in cyberspace, and what are the associated statistical and phenomenological patterns? (2) What is the role of family and school structures in the emergence and exacerbation of these deviations? (3) What tensions exist between traditional Iranian-Islamic discourses and modern digital discourses? (4) What beliefs, metaphors, and myths predominantly influence the behavior of students, families, and schools? (5) What possible future scenarios can be envisioned, and how can strengthening the roles of family and school lead to a desirable scenario? Domestic studies have largely focused on the prevalence of cyberspace addiction and its effects on student behavior and academic performance. Salehi Manzari (2022) demonstrated that cyberspace addiction is positively associated with academic decline, aggression, and mental health problems. Sheikhi (2023) identified reduced family communication, academic decline, and aggression as primary concerns. Jaberi et al. (2023) highlighted the societal risks of cyberspace addiction. Ebadi et al. (2021) confirmed the role of academic alienation and psychological distress in predicting addiction. Ahmadnejad-Kangi and Hamidani (2019) identified anxiety, depression, and sleep disorders as major consequences of cyberspace-related harms. Akbari et al. (2023), using latent profile analysis, linked high-risk groups to sensation-seeking, social anxiety, and loneliness. At the international level, Lozano et al. (2021) identified predictors of cyber-deviant behaviors. Nesi et al. (2018) examined the transformation of peer relationships within social media contexts. Boer et al. (2020) associated problematic social media use with lower well-being. Ordis (2016) identified parental monitoring and school bonding as protective factors. Lee (2018) found low self-control and association with deviant peers to be the most significant predictors. These studies indicate that weak family supervision, reduced school functioning, and individual factors are primary predictors; however, they have paid less attention to deeper layers of analysis. Bandura's Social Learning Theory (1977) explains that behaviors are learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. In cyberspace, immediate digital reinforcements accelerate the learning cycle of deviant behaviors. Hirschi's Social Control Theory (1969) emphasizes that deviations occur when social bonds with family and school are weakened. Nesi et al.'s (2018) Peer Relationship Transformation Model and Steinberg's (2010) Dual-System Model of brain development elucidate neurobiological mechanisms. Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory (2005) conceptualizes behavior as resulting from multi-level interactions. The Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) approach, introduced by Inayatullah, fills this gap by viewing reality as layered and enabling the construction of alternative futures.   Methodology This qualitative investigation utilized Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) as its overarching methodological heuristic. Participants comprised 32 individuals recruited from Hamadan, Iran, including 10 parents, 8 teachers, 7 school counselors, and 7 students. Purposive sampling was employed to maximize diversity across roles and experiential backgrounds, with theoretical saturation serving as the criterion for sample sufficiency. Semi-structured interviews constituted the primary data-gathering instrument, eliciting participants’ perceptions regarding students’ cyberspace-related behavioral deviations, the contributory roles of family and school, underlying structural determinants, competing cultural discourses, and prevailing metaphors and beliefs surrounding digital conduct. Data analysis proceeded in accordance with CLA’s four-tiered framework: (1) the litany layer, capturing participants’ descriptions of overt problems and dominant public narratives; (2) the systemic layer, identifying institutional, familial, and educational mechanisms that underlie the phenomena; (3) the worldview layer, analyzing cultural presuppositions and competing discursive frameworks concerning adolescence, technology, family, school, and individual agency; and (4) the myth/metaphor layer, discerning and interpreting deep-seated narratives and symbolic representations used to characterize students, families, schools, and cyberspace. To ensure credibility, source triangulation and member checking were implemented. For dependability, two independent researchers performed parallel coding, and inter-coder agreement, assessed via Cohen’s kappa, exceeded 0.85. An audit trail was systematically maintained throughout the research process to enhance transparency and analytical traceability.   Results At the litany layer, public discourse was characterized by anxiety and judgment, with deviations attributed to technology. At the systemic causes layer, inadequate parental supervision, lack of media literacy, and school inefficiency were prominent. At the worldview layer, a tension emerged between traditional collectivist discourse and individualistic digital discourse. At the myth/metaphor layer, three dominant metaphors were identified: the student as a "victim of the digital storm" or "seeker of forbidden freedom," the family as a "weary guardian," and the school as an "isolated fortress." Three future scenarios were delineated: continued crisis (dark), minimal adaptation (gray), and positive transformation (desirable), achieved through discursive reconstruction and institutional empowerment.   Discussion and Conclusion The findings indicate that behavioral deviations constitute a multi-layered phenomenon, with family and school playing key but currently inadequate roles. Recommendations include conducting media literacy training workshops for parents and counselors, revising the curriculum to integrate media literacy, utilizing national media to promote a positive digital culture, and developing collaborative family-school platforms. These strategies can facilitate movement toward the desirable scenario.   References Akbari, M., et al. (2023) Potential risk and protective factors related to problematic social media use among adolescents in Iran: A latent profile analysis. 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(2018) The Application of Causal Layered Analysis to Deconstruct the Present Con-ditions of Media and Politics In Iran. Futures Of A Complex World, 111. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40309-018-0137-9">https://doi.org/10.1186/s40309-018-0137-9</a> Throuvala, M. A., et al. (2019) School-based prevention for adolescent Internet addiction: Prevention is the key. A systematic literature review. Current Neuropharmacology, 17(6), 507-525. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X17666180701080822">https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X17666180701080822</a> Udris, R. (2016) Cyber deviance among adolescents and the role of family, school, and neighborhood: A cross-national study. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 10(2), 127-146. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.146778">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.146778</a>   <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Ph.D. in Sociology of Social Issues of Iran, Department of Social Sciences Education, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran. <a href="mailto:saeidgholami24@yahoo.com">saeidgholami24@yahoo.com</a>  https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5847-7281  http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/Article/52539Behavioral deviations Cyberspace Causal Layered Analysis Family SchoolperInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X3060-82282026-07619articleSociological Explanation of the Tendency Toward Violence among Adolescents and Youth in the City of KashanMohamad Solimannejadmsdt59@yahoo.com1 mohsen niaziniazim@kashanu.ac2 tahereh Solimannejadrsdt70@yahoo.com3Assistant Professor, Department of Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran. Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Law, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran.Ph.D. Student in Cultural Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; Research Centers Evaluation Expert, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran.<div class="flex flex-col text-sm pb-25"> <article class="text-token-text-primary w-full focus:outline-none [--shadow-height:45px] has-data-writing-block:pointer-events-none has-data-writing-block:-mt-(--shadow-height) has-data-writing-block:pt-(--shadow-height) [&:has([data-writing-block])>*]:pointer-events-auto scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" tabindex="-1" data-turn-id="request-WEB:bec8f841-dbba-4aef-8582-8d12252a434b-1" data-testid="conversation-turn-4" data-scroll-anchor="true" data-turn="assistant"> <div class="text-base my-auto mx-auto pb-10 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @w-sm/main:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @w-lg/main:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)"> <div class="[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @w-lg/main:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 group/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn" tabindex="-1"> <div class="flex max-w-full flex-col grow"> <div class="min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&]:mt-1" dir="auto" data-message-author-role="assistant" data-message-id="6776dd13-769b-4b52-a1fe-4faceb001a82" data-message-model-slug="gpt-5-2"> <div class="flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[1px]"> <div class="markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full wrap-break-word light markdown-new-styling"> <div class="flex max-w-full flex-col grow"> <div class="min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&]:mt-1" dir="auto" data-message-author-role="assistant" data-message-id="b44ccbc7-78ec-4917-b802-4de09ae6c474" data-message-model-slug="gpt-5-2"> <div class="flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[1px]"> <div class="markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full wrap-break-word light markdown-new-styling"> This study aimed to provide a sociological explanation of the tendency toward violence among adolescents and young people in the city of Kashan. Violence is defined as harsh and impulsive actions that can lead to harmful physical, psychological, and social consequences for both perpetrators and others. The theoretical framework was based on theories of social problems, and the research used a survey method. The statistical population included adolescents and youth in Kashan, from which 383 individuals were selected through proportional probability sampling using Cochran’s formula. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation, paired sample t-tests, and path analysis with SPSS 25 and Smart-PLS software to examine relationships between independent variables and the dependent variable (tendency toward violence). Results showed significant positive relationships between violent tendency and several factors: influence of cyberspace, association with delinquent friends, family indifference, feelings of anomie, living in disorganized neighborhoods, and institutional dysfunction. Men showed higher levels of violent tendency than women, and age had a significant but inverse relationship, indicating that violent tendency decreases as age increases. No significant relationship was found between socioeconomic status and violent tendency. Path analysis revealed that interaction with delinquent friends had the strongest effect on violent tendency, followed by feelings of anomie and influence from cyberspace. Altogether, the variables in the model explained 36% of the variance in violent tendency. These findings emphasize the crucial role of social and environmental conditions in shaping violent attitudes and behaviors among young people. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="z-0 flex min-h-[46px] justify-start"> </div> <div class="mt-3 w-full empty:hidden"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mt-3 w-full empty:hidden"> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div>http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/Article/52844 tendency toward violence interaction with delinquent friends institutional dysfunction family indifference cyberspace.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X3060-82282026-0761981108articleLived Experience of Addicted Women about the Feminization of Addictionakbar Talebpoura.talebpour@alzahra.ac.ir1fatemeh darvishifatemeh.xxx2020@gmail.com2Associate Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.M.A in Sociology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.Lived Experience of Addicted Women about the Feminization of Addiction   Akbar Talebpour<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Fatemeh Darvishi<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>   The increased presence of women in society, in addition to its favorable opportunities, also brought social harms. Observing women smoking cigarettes and other drugs in public is a sign of feminization of addiction, which has been studied in this study using grounded theory to produce a local theory of feminization of addiction. The target population of the study was women involved in addiction in Tehran, and twenty of these people were interviewed as study subjects. The sampling method was purposeful and snowball due to the lack of access to the population. The research data collection technique were in-depth and semi-structured interviews. Strauss and Corbin coding was used to analyze the data in the form of open, axial, and selective coding. The results of the study showed that the underlying conditions of economic deprivation, dysfunctional family, and cultural deprivation, along with the causal conditions of violence, the experience of loss and high risk-taking, and the intervening conditions of easy access, pure friends, and low cost of deviation, play a very significant role in the feminization of addiction. This ultimately entails consequences such as loss of social and human capital, lack of social participation, illness, social despair, and social exclusion. Addicted women used strategies of denial, justification, and conflict with society to avoid social exclusion. Social frustration and despair have exacerbated women's addiction and led them to conflict with their families and society. Such conflict can become a major source of aggression and resentment towards society, which is very harmful. Keywords: Addiction, Social Despair, Grounded Theory, Feminization, Social Exclusion.   Introduction The study and investigation of women's addiction have been neglected and hidden for several reasons, including their avoidance of visiting addiction treatment centers and fear of the labels and stigmas that society places on addicted women (Barabadi et al., 2018: 235). According to the results of research conducted in the field of addiction, addicted women have been placed under the main shell of addiction and the reasons for this group's addiction have not been given serious attention. In addition, today, addiction is considered a social figure and gesture and has become normal among women, which is increasing day by day in a metropolis like Tehran. This city has provided a suitable platform for women's addiction due to its vastness and anonymity. Discovering the reasons for the tendency towards addiction from the perspective of addicted women and identifying the underlying, causal and interfering reasons for women's addiction from the perspective of the affected individuals can create new scientific approaches to the subject under study and clarify the strategies and consequences of addiction of addicted women from the perspective of these individuals. Therefore, the present study seeks to search for the backgrounds, causal conditions and interfering conditions leading to the formation of women's addiction from the perspective of the target group and to address the strategies and consequences of women's addiction. The importance and necessity of studying in this field is obvious and it is necessary to say that studies of this kind, in addition to producing indigenous theory in the field of the subject under study, will also help social policymakers in dealing with this phenomenon.   Theoretical Framework Previous studies have examined women's addiction using quantitative methods and have tried to explain women's addiction using addiction theories and discuss the factors affecting this phenomenon. It is obvious that in these studies, women's addiction is not given serious attention from the perspective of addicted women and is neglected. In view of this, the difference between the present study and previous studies is in paying attention to addiction from the perspective of the target community and from the perspective of women by using a qualitative method and, in fact, the method of empathetic introspection, so that by using the experiences of these people, a better attitude towards the phenomenon under study can be found and solutions tailored to the problems of this group can be presented. According to Agnew's structural pressure theory, there are three general sources of pressure: failure in valuable situations, failure to achieve goals such as academic and career positions, etc., and negative motivations that experience bitter and fragile relationships such as unsuccessful relationships in marriage or the bitter experience of separation, divorce in the family environment or undesirable relationships or the loss of loved ones, etc. can lead to women's addiction tendencies; In a way, women turn to alternatives to escape the pressures they face, one of which is addiction (Siegel, 2016: 159 and Alivardinia et al., 2007: 93).According to Blau's theory of relative deprivation, in a society where the economic and social balance is in the hands of the wealthy class, people from lower classes compare themselves with the wealthy classes, which leads to a sense of deprivation and a sense of injustice in them, and increases their distrust. However, since the opportunity for progress through legitimate criteria is closed, a feeling of inability to achieve goals arises, which leads to aggression and drug addiction (Siegel, 2016: 142). According to the unequal opportunity theory of Klouward & Ohlin, people from lower social classes are more likely to be driven towards addiction and deviant behavior because they believe that these people are under pressure due to the lack of legitimate opportunities to achieve their goals, and the gap between success and its failure to be achieved through legitimate and illegitimate means leads to a sense of failure, defeat, and isolation that leads them to substance use (Mohseni Tabrizi, 2002: 8). Shaw and Mackey believe that the causes and occurrence of deviant behavior can be sought in social problems, the cause of which is uncontrolled migration patterns. They believe that changes in the physical structure of the city affect the social behavior of individuals (Mumtaz, 2002: 87).   Methodology Given the sensitivity and high risk of the issue, a snowball sampling method was used. An initial introduction to the addicted women was conducted through the police force, and then the interviews were conducted in person. All interviews were handwritten due to the participants’ unwillingness to participate, and pseudonyms were used to protect the participants’ dignity and rights. Sampling and research work in the database should proceed to the point where the researcher reaches theoretical saturation; that is, the researcher reaches a point where he or she feels that new interviews do not highlight new dimensions of the study (Talebpour and Beiranvand, 2022: 110). The target sample size was 20 addicted women who had lived experience of addiction in the Tehran metropolis. Although the researchers had reached theoretical saturation in the 14th interview, to ensure greater certainty, the interviews continued to 20 people. Most of the interviewees lived in Tehran, including regions; Shush, Molavi, Darvaze Ghar, Khavaran, Gorgan Street. To examine the validity of the research, the member validity technique was used (Strauss & Corbin, 2019: 180). For this purpose, the interviews were provided to several participants with initial codes attached so that the similarity of the categories extracted by the researcher with the participants' mindset could be compared, and in some cases, categories were modified that were different from what the participants had experienced. In some cases, the participants' ambiguities about some categories were answered. Also, to examine the reliability of the research, the technique of re-examination by professors and experts in this field and the validation of analytical comparisons was used as a criterion and benchmark for the research. The text of the initial interviews along with the extracted categories was provided to the sociology professors, and after a round-trip interaction session, a complete consensus was reached on the extracted categories.   Results Participants were between 22 and 47 years, and their age mean was 35.55 years. Half of the interviewees were in higher education and 50 percent of them were in lower levels. The onset age range of addiction among users was from 15 to 39 years, and the average age of starting drug use was 25.4, and the average number of years of drug use of these women was 7.4 years. The drugs used by most of the study subjects were crystal meth, followed by opium and heroin. In terms of marital status, eight were divorced, five were married, and seven were single. The economic base of five was low, eight were middle class, and seven were upper class. The occupations of the study subjects included hairdressing, sales, secretarial work, prostitution, drug sales, and drug trafficking. According to the results of the research, contexts such as economic deprivation, dysfunctional family, and cultural deprivation, along with causal conditions of violence, experience of loss and high risk-taking, and intervening conditions of easy access, pure friends, and low cost of deviation, play a very significant role in the feminization of addiction. This ultimately entails consequences such as loss of social and human capital, lack of social participation, illness, social despair, and social exclusion. Meanwhile, addicted women use strategies of denial, justification, and conflict with society to prevent social exclusion.   Discussion and Conclusion In addicted women perspective, the availability of drugs played a significant role in the feminization of addiction. Women and girls used the mechanism of denial to continue their use and justify their addiction, believing that the drugs they used were not addictive at all and were just a plant substance that transformed their immediate state and led to instant euphoria. The main consequences of women's addiction were in areas such as reduced social and human capital, reduced social participation of women, physical and mental illnesses, stigmatization and social exclusion, which caused irreparable harm to women. Most of the results of the reviewed studies were consistent with the results of the present study, in such a way that the categories obtained in the field of causal conditions, intervening conditions and, to some extent, consequences were consistent with most previous domestic and foreign studies. The findings of the research on social despair were consistent with the theories of Durkheim, Merton, and the theories of conflict theorists. These results were consistent with Talebpour (2023) and Motyka et al. (2022) findings. The category of social despair and the role of structures in women's addiction was somewhat different from the results of previous studies. Social despair and conflict with society to prevent social exclusion include the frustration of addicted women, which can turn into latent resentment against society. In times of social crises, latent resentment can lead to revenge against society in the form of vandalistic behaviors and contribute to the spread of social unrest. In order to reduce the harm caused by the feminization of addiction, it is necessary for those in charge of the matter to take serious measures on the one hand towards the treatment and rehabilitation of addicted women, and on the other hand to prevent the increase in the number of people involved in this field. Special attention should be paid to creating hope among the young generation and women, and by increasing hope for the future among the young generation, the community's leaders should prevent the increase in social despair in society, so that on the one hand the growth and dynamism of society can be maintained, and on the other hand, the eruption of accumulated anger can be prevented.   References Ahmadi, H. (2005) Sociology of Deviance, Tehran, Samt. ISBN 9789644599378.(In Persian). Alivardinia, A, Riahi, M,I, & Mousavi Chashmi, S,M.(2007) A Sociological Study of Delinquency: An Empirical Test of Agnew's Public Pressure Theory.. 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Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000383550">https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000383550</a>. Zhian Bagheri, H.& Khojayev, M.(2021) "Women and Addiction to Substance Abuse", Studies and Research in Behavioral Sciences, Volume 3, No. 2. 8-22. (In Persian). <a href="https://jobssar.ir/showpaper/734678">https://jobssar.ir/showpaper/734678</a>.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran. a.talebpour@alzahra.ac.ir https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1644-6117 <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> M.A in Sociology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran. fatemeh.xxx2020@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8978-7076http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/Article/52579Addiction Social Despair Grounded Theory Feminization Social Exclusion.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X3060-82282026-07619109142articleInvestigating Challenges and Coping Strategies in Intercultural Marriages in Iran: A Qualitative Study of Men's Lived Experiencesamir qorbanpoorlafmejaniamirelite@yahoo.com1sara qorbanzadehghorbanzadeh_sara@yahoo.com2Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.M.A, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.Investigating Challenges and Coping Strategies in Intercultural Marriages in Iran: A Qualitative Study of Men's Lived Experiences   Amir Ghorbanpoor Lafmejani<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Sara Ghorbanzadeh<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>   In intercultural marriages, couples face numerous challenges due to differences in beliefs, values, customs, traditions, and communication styles. This study aimed to investigate the challenges of intercultural marriages and the coping strategies employed by men involved in intercultural marriages. The present study adopted a qualitative research strategy and applied an inductive qualitative content analysis method. The study sample consisted of all men who had married someone from outside their own city and cultural background and were residing in one of the cities of Iran. 25 male participants were interviewed. Following the analysis of the interviews, six main themes related to the challenges of intercultural marriage were identified, including challenges related to religious beliefs, communication challenges, family-related challenges, differences in customs and traditions, challenges arising from geographical distance, and challenges arising from regional and geographical differences. In addition, five main themes related to coping strategies were identified: passive/avoidant strategies, cognitive strategies, interactive strategies, religious strategies, and solution-oriented strategies. To reduce the challenges facing intercultural marriages and help improve their quality of life, it is suggested that family counselors and couple therapists adopt a comprehensive approach by placing intercultural communication skills training, strengthening social support networks, utilizing the capacity of religious strategies in coping with conflicts, and facilitating the process of creating a "third culture" by couples on their agenda.   Keywords: Intercultural marriage, Marriage among men, Coping strategies, Iranian couples, Quality of life.   Introduction Marriage, as the most fundamental social institution, plays a pivotal role in family formation and the continuity of culture within societies. In recent years, extensive developments in communication technology, transportation, and internal migration have provided the conditions for an increase in marriages in which spouses have distinct cultural, linguistic, religious, and ethnic backgrounds. These marriages, known as intercultural marriages, face numerous challenges due to differences in beliefs, values, customs and traditions, and communication styles, which can affect marital satisfaction and, in some cases, lead to divorce. Despite the increasing prevalence of such marriages in Iran, the research literature indicates that most domestic studies have adopted quantitative approaches and have primarily focused on identifying scattered challenges, while less attention has been paid to an in-depth exploration of the coping strategies that couples themselves employ when confronting cultural conflicts. Accordingly, the present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the challenges of intercultural marriages and the coping strategies employed by Iranian men, to fill the existing research gap and provide an indigenous model of the process of confronting the challenges of intercultural marriages. The research literature indicates that international studies, such as those by Sindane (2014), Dewaele (2018), Kim and Yu (2022), and Sun and Yuan (2021), have more extensively addressed challenges such as differences in religious beliefs, communication and language difficulties, conflicts with the spouse's family, and differences in rituals and traditions. In Iran, studies by Shirdel and Shojaei (2016) and Rajabi et al. (2017) have also pointed to some of these challenges. However, what has received less attention in these studies is the presentation of an integrated framework of coping strategies that couples themselves develop within the specific cultural context of Iran. In particular, the role of distinctive features of Iranian culture, such as strong familism, the vital importance of religion as a component of identity, profound intracultural differences among provinces, and the use of religious strategies as a coping resource, has not been systematically examined in previous research.   Methodology The present study was conducted using a qualitative research strategy and an inductive qualitative content analysis method. The study population consisted of all men who had married someone from outside their own city and cultural background and were residing in one of the cities of Iran. Purposive sampling was conducted using the snowball sampling method. The inclusion criterion was being in an intercultural marriage. The data collection tool was a semi-structured interview. The interview process continued until theoretical saturation was reached (at the 23rd interview); however, to ensure greater confidence in the findings, interviews were continued until 25 participants had been interviewed. The average duration of the interviews was 35 minutes. The data were analyzed using the conventional qualitative content analysis method proposed by Hsieh and Shannon (2005). To establish trustworthiness, participant review (member checking) and expert review were employed.   Results The findings of the study are presented in two sections: challenges and coping strategies. In the section on challenges, six main themes were extracted: <ol style="text-align: left;"> <li>Challenges related to religious beliefs, including two subcategories: "greater freedom of the wife and her family regarding religious boundaries" and "insistence of the wife and her family on religious boundaries."</li> <li>Communication challenges, including four subcategories: "differences in the level of social interaction," "misinterpretation of words and behaviors," "weakness in communication skills," and "different love languages."</li> <li>Family-related challenges, including two subcategories: "family interference" and "lack of or insufficient financial assistance from families."</li> <li>Differences in customs and traditions, including two subcategories: "differences in engagement, wedding, and dowry customs" and "different perspectives across cities."</li> <li>Challenges arising from geographical distance, including two subcategories: "problems related to the distance between locations" and "emotional difficulties resulting from being away from families."</li> </ol> In the section on coping strategies, five main themes were identified: <ol style="text-align: left;"> <li>Passive/Avoidant Strategy, including three subcategories: "silence and forbearance," "avoidance and distancing," and "letting time pass."</li> <li>Cognitive Strategy, including two subcategories: "identifying and accepting differences and similarities" and "increasing knowledge and information."</li> <li>Interactive Strategy, including three subcategories: "increasing verbal communication with the spouse," "consulting experienced individuals," and "establishing appropriate boundaries with families."</li> <li>Religious Strategy, including the subcategory "using spiritual resources and practices."</li> <li>Solution-Oriented Strategy, including three subcategories: "seeking assistance from a professional counselor," "migrating to a new city and creating a third culture," and "increasing visits to the spouse's city to alleviate homesickness."</li> </ol>   Discussion and Conclusion The present study demonstrated that Iranian men in intercultural marriages experience a wide range of challenges. Based on Face-Negotiation Theory (Ting-Toomey, 1988), religious conflicts and differences in religious boundaries are not merely differences in personal preferences; rather, they constitute threats to an individual's face in relation to their family and traditional society. Furthermore, based on Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Berger & Calabrese, 1975), differences in direct versus indirect communication styles intensify uncertainty and create communication-related stress. From the perspective of Kim's (2001) theory of intercultural adaptation, the family serves as the primary host social network, and in Iranian culture, due to strong familism, family interference may continue even years after marriage. Furthermore, according to Cultural Identity Theory (Collier & Thomas, 1988), differences in customs and dietary habits are not merely matters of personal preference but reflect different systems of meaning that are deeply intertwined with individuals' cultural identities. In contrast, men employ five coping strategies, and their success largely depends on replacing passive strategies, such as silence, patience, and avoidance, with interactive and solution-oriented strategies, such as dialogue, consultation, establishing boundaries with families, seeking professional counseling, and creating a third culture. The religious strategy, including prayer, supplication to the Imams, and seeking assistance from God, was identified as a distinctive feature of Iranian-Islamic culture. Although it can be categorized as emotion-focused coping, it has an active dimension and can be utilized as a positive resource in counseling interventions. The present study recommends that family counselors and couple therapists place the following measures on their agenda: training intercultural communication skills with an emphasis on non-threatening questioning and managing linguistic misunderstandings; strengthening social support networks; utilizing the capacity of religious strategies in coping with conflicts; facilitating the process of creating a "third culture" by couples through migration to a third city or the development of new family patterns; and designing pre- and post-marital educational and counseling programs that emphasize appropriate boundary-setting with families and the management of cultural expectations.   References Alini, Mohammad (2015) Examining family functions in shaping Islamic lifestyle. Islam and Social Studies, 1(4), 77–107. (In Persian). Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. J. (1975) Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1(2), 99–112. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1975.tb00258.x. Collier, M. J., & Thomas, M. (1988) Cultural identity: An interpretive perspective. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 99–120). Sage. Dewaele, J. M. (2018) Pragmatic challenges in the communication of emotions in intercultural couples. Intercultural Pragmatics, 15(1), 29–55. DOI: 10.1515/ip-2018-0002. Ellison, C. G., Burdette, A. M., & Wilcox, W. B. (2010) The couple that prays together: Race and ethnicity, religion, and relationship quality among working-age adults. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(4), 963–975. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00742.x. Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005) Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. DOI: 10.1177/1049732305276687 Iravani, Mohammad Baqer (2009) Dorus-e Tamhidiyyah fi al-Fiqh al-Istidlali (Vol. 4). Qom: World Center for Islamic Sciences. (In Persian) Jan Bozorgi, Masoud (2021) Pre-Marriage Counseling: Principles, Foundations, and Practical Strategies. Qom: Research Institute of Hawzah and University. (In Persian) Kim, W. J., & Yu, S. (2022) Psychological adaptation among marriage migrant women in South Korea: Stress and coping, culture learning, and social cognition approaches. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 50(4), 424–441. DOI: 10.1080/01926187.2021.1946001 Kim, Y. Y. (2001) Becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Sage Publications. Rajabi, Gholamreza, Sadeghi, Mohsen, & Ghorbani, Naser (2017) Phenomenological exploration of the lived experience of marital satisfaction among couples with cultural differences. Family Counseling and Psychotherapy, 8(1), 105–124. DOI: 10.22034/fcp.2018.60859. (In Persian) Shirdel, Sima, & Shojaei Baghini, Fatemeh (2016) Marriage and the investigation of factors affecting its success and failure. The 9th Congress of Pioneers of Progress, Tehran. (In Persian) Sindane, S. M. (2014) Perceptions of intercultural marriage: The lived experiences of South Africans and African foreigners in intercultural marriage [Master's thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal]. UKZN Research Space. Sun, Y., & Yuan, L. (2021, January) A study of Sino-Western intercultural marriage from a cross-cultural perspective. In 6th Annual International Conference on Social Science and Contemporary Humanity Development (SSCHD 2020) (pp. 206–209). Atlantis Press. DOI: 10.2991/assehr.k.210106.039 Ting-Toomey, S. (1988) Intercultural conflict styles: A face-negotiation theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 213–235). Sage.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran. qorbanpoorlafmejani@guilan.ac.ir https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3548-5629 <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> M.A, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran. ghorbanzadeh_sara@yahoo.com https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4256-9104http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/Article/53488Intercultural marriage Marriage among men Coping strategies Iranian couples Quality of life.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X3060-82282026-07619143170articleCriminological Analysis of Forced Marriage in Afghanistan in the Light of Social Structuralism TheoryHamidreza Danesh Narihdanesh90@yahoo.com1Abdolmalek Parsaabolmalekparsa@um.ac.ir2Assistant Professor, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.Ph.D. Student in Criminal Law and Criminology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.Criminological Analysis of Forced Marriage in Afghanistan in the Light of Social Structuralism Theory   Hamidreza Danesh nari<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Abolmalek Parsa<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>   Forced marriage is a marriage that takes place without the genuine consent of one or both parties to the marriage. As one of the significant forms of violence against women. Forced marriage has harmful and long-term consequences for its victims and for society. Despite the criminalization of forced marriage and the provision of criminal protection for the right to freedom of marriage under the Law on the Elimination of Violence against Women within the Afghan criminal justice system, the widespread prevalence of this crime indicates the failure of the punitive approach. Therefore, the present study seeks to provide an etiological explanation of the effect of social structure on forced marriage. This study is qualitative using a thematic analysis approach. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with six local elders and community leaders in Nijrab County of Afghanestan. Data analysis resulted in the identification of three main categories that explain the concept of the "social structure of forced marriage." These categories included gendered cultural institutions, pressure from social norms, and the economic dependence of girls on their families. The findings indicate a context-dependent relationship between social structure and forced marriage. The definition of unequal social status and standing for women and men through gendered cultural institutions, such as patriarchy, paternalism, the construction of women as helpless, pressure from social norms, girls' economic dependence, and unequal power within the family, deprives women and girls of decision-making power and increases the prevalence of forced marriage.   Keywords: Forced marriage, Patriarchy, Afghanistan, Violence against women, Values.   Introduction Forced marriage is one of the socially harmful issues rooted in both individual factors and social structural factors. As an explicit violation of the fundamental rights of women and girls, forced marriage has far-reaching consequences at the individual, family, and societal levels. This type of marriage is not limited to particular community and occurs in various countries, both traditional and modern. For example, research conducted in Spain has demonstrated the existence of forced marriage in that country (Torres & Carolina Villacampa, 2021: 2). However, the prevalence of forced marriage is higher in multicultural and traditional societies than in modern societies (Moghaddasi & Ameri, 2016: 171). In Afghan society, particularly in rural areas, ancient traditions that conflict with Islamic principles have resulted in the consent of the parties to a marriage contract being disregarded, and families exercising control over their fate. Despite extensive efforts by domestic and international institutions to improve the status of women, a considerable number of Afghan girls, particularly in rural areas, continue to become victims of forced marriages. In response to the widespread occurrence of forced marriages, the Afghan legislature criminalized forced marriage through the enactment of the Law on the Elimination of Violence against Women in 2009. The purpose of this article is to explain the effect of social structure on forced marriage in Najran, Afghanistan.   Theoretical Foundations The Concept of Forced Marriage Forced marriage refers to a marriage in which the marital union is entered without the full and free consent of both parties, often because of some form of unlawful coercion (Askola, 2018: 4). In other words, forced marriage is a marriage that takes place without the consent of one or both parties to the marriage (Torres & Carolina Villacampa, 2021: 1). Coercion may range from physical force to various forms of psychological, financial, and emotional pressure, often exerted by close or extended family members (Askola, 2018: 4).   Social Structure The idea of social structure derives from the biological metaphor of the organism, first introduced by Herbert Spencer. At that time, the term "structure" in biology referred to what is now called an organ, namely, a set of interconnected tissues that performs a specific function for the organism (Martin & Lee, 2015: 713). Drawing on biology and comparing society to a living organism, Spencer regarded society as a set of interconnected units whose functions give life to society (Delaney, 2021: 81). The first dimension of social structure consists of collective relations Social relationships that are divided into distinctive patterns as constituent elements of society. Another dimension of social structure consists of collective manifestations, including opinions, beliefs, values, symbols, and expectations. Although these phenomena are subjective in nature, they are transmitted from one individual to another. Through transmission from one individual to another, these mental phenomena become shared and assume a regulatory and supervisory role in shaping individuals' behavior (Hosseini-Sirat, 2017: 184). Durkheim's perspective on the material and non-material dimensions of reality social structure, namely collective relations and collective manifestations inspired different approaches within structural sociology (Delaney, 2021: 149). On one side of this approach is the idea of institutional structure, which encompasses cultural or normative patterns that determine actors' expectations regarding one another's behavior and organize their relationships. On the other side is the idea of relational structure, according to which social structure encompasses social relations and interactions and functions as a pattern of reciprocal relationships and interdependencies among actors and actions, as well as the positions and statuses they occupy (Lopez & John Scott, 2006: 13).   Methodology The present study is applied qualitative method. The aim of this research was to examine and explain the effect of social structure on forced marriage. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews. Given the sensitive nature of the research problem and its relationship to individuals' privacy, as well as victims' reluctance to participate directly in the research, the study population consisted of six local elders and community leaders from Nijrab County. Nijrab is one of the counties of Kapisa Province and is located 90 kilometers northeast of Kabul. The people of Nijrab are ethnically Tajik and Persian speaking. Because of their social status and their direct involvement in resolving conflicts in the county, including family disputes, these individuals possess a sound understanding of the culture, customs, and social structure of the local community. The data collection instrument was a semi-structured interview designed based on the theoretical framework of the study. The interview questions focused on issues such as the concept of forced marriage, the cultural roots of forced marriage, the role of local traditions and beliefs in forced marriage, the distribution of power within the family, and women's economic dependence. Each interview lasted approximately 30 to 45 minutes and was conducted with the informed consent of the participants.   Results Qualitative content analysis of the in-depth interviews with local community leaders resulted in the extraction of three main categories organized around the concept of the "social structure of forced marriage." These findings are not merely descriptive; they also support the theoretical foundations of social structure. The first and most important factor underlying forced marriage in this study is a “gendered perception of women”. The interview data indicate that forced marriage is rooted in a gendered perception of women. The findings show that the community leaders' understanding of gender is based on a hierarchy of power. Within this paradigm, a woman is viewed as an individual whose identity is always defined in relation to a "man" (father, brother, or husband). This category can be analyzed through two specific subcategories. From the perspective of local community leaders, “men possess superior rationality and experience” because of their involvement in affairs outside the home and their participation in social matters. This attribution of greater competence, in customary and moral terms, legitimizes men's authority to make decisions on behalf of weaker family members (women). In this context, male authority is represented as a form of responsibility. The construction of “women as weak” is another manifestation of the gendered perception of women and, in contrast to male authority, portrays women as weak. Analysis of the codes extracted from the statements of local community leaders, such as "intellectually deficient" and "vulnerable to emotions," indicates the construction of women as weak within the context of Afghan society. The community leaders believe that, because of women's "intellectual weakness" and "emotional nature," they lack the competence necessary to make the most consequential decision of their lives marriage. Consequently, forced marriage is not represented as an oppressive and coercive act but rather as a "protective measure."   Disscusion and Conclusion This article provides an explanation of the relationship between social structure and forced marriage. Based on previous studies, social structure, as an important variable, has a direct effect on individuals' actions, relationships, and social interactions. Given that marriage constitutes one of the principal arenas of gender relations between women and men, analyzing and examining the relationship between social structure and forced marriage requires the study of the fundamental values and beliefs that define the gendered status and social standing of women and men. According to the findings of the study, men's cultural and economic hegemony within the social structure contributes to women's victimization. Through the construction of gendered institutions, society, on the one hand, assigns women a lower status and value than men and, on the other hand, gendered institutions define behavioral expectations that forced women to obey men. Based on gender-stereotypical beliefs within the context of social relations and interactions, men perceive themselves as the superior and first-class gender, while women are regarded as the weaker and second-class gender. Viewing women as a symbol of men's honor and social standing reflects a sense of ownership and a hierarchical, top-down perception of women by men. References Afshani, Seyed Alireza, Askari Nodoushan, Abbas, & Fazel Najafabadi, Somayeh (2009) "Reproduction of Gender Roles in Persian Textbooks at the Elementary School Level." Women in Development and Politics, 7(1), 87–107. (In Persian) Amnesty International (2022) Submission to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 91st Session, 16 June–July 2025. Antonoplis, Stephen (2023) Studying Personality and Social Structure. Wiley Online Library. Askola, Heli (2018) "Responding to Vulnerability? Forced Marriage and the Law." University of New South Wales Law Journal, 41(3). 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Email: <a href="mailto:samitha@soci.ruh.ac.lk">samitha@soci.ruh.ac.lk</a> UN-Habitat (2019) Global Land Tool Network Gender Strategy (2019–2030): Towards Securing Women’s and Girls’ Land and Property Rights. United Nations Human Settlements Programme.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Corresponding Author: Assistant Professor, Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. <a href="mailto:daneshnari@um.ac.ir">daneshnari@um.ac.ir</a> https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2676-0422 <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Ph.D. Student in Criminal Law and Criminology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. abolmalekparsa@um.ac.ir https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0046-3755http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/Article/52558Forced marriage Patriarchy Afghanistan Violence against women Values.