مرکز منطقه ای اطلاع رسانی علوم و فناوریپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X4132025713Pathology of the Functions of the Arbaeen Marchآسیب‌شناسی کارکردهای راهپیمایی اربعین 130faغلامعلینیستانیدانشجوی دکتری جامعه‌شناسی سیاسی، واحد نراق، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، نراق، ایرانمحمدحسینپوریانیاستادیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی، واحد نراق، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، نراق، ایران حسین اژدری زادهاستادیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی، واحد نراق، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، نراق، ایران 2024811  Pathology of the Functions of the Arbaeen March   Gholamali Neystani <a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Mohammad Hossein Pouryani <a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a> Hossein Azhdarizadeh<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">***</a>   In recent years, the Arbaeen march has emerged as a strategic phenomenon with significant civilizational capacities. However, it remains vulnerable to various forms of dysfunction. This study investigates the disparity between the current behavioral practices and the ideal normative state, alongside deviations from established social and religious norms. The primary objective is to standardize and sociologically analyze the challenges and dysfunctions threatening the Arbaeen march, identifying their root causes to address deficiencies and enhance the quality of this significant ritual. Employing a qualitative methodology, the research draws on in-depth interviews with forty scholars from seminary and academic institutions, supplemented by observation, document analysis, including travelogues, official reports, and public narratives. The findings are organized into seven key domains: executive management challenges, cultural and social issues, health and environmental concerns, religious and theological tensions, political and international dynamics, economic and market-related disruptions, and the risk of ritual secularization. These are examined through two primary frameworks: The imperative for governmental focus on infrastructure development, and the preservation of social capital and the promotion of positive civilizational representations, while mitigating carnival-like and non-value-oriented tendencies. Ultimately, the pathology of the Arbaeen phenomenon highlights deficiencies in its executive structure, underscoring the need to return to the intrinsic religious essence of the Karbala pilgrimage to prevent its transformation into a mere touristic spectacle.   Keywords: Arbaeen march, Superstition, Deviant Sects, Ritual Secularization, Social Harms   Introduction The study of social harms is a central concern in the humanities, as behaviors that deviate from societal norms can undermine individual and collective trust. From a sociological pathology perspective, certain symbols, mentalities, and religious interpretations can disrupt societal functions, creating challenges in the practice of religious life (Bayat & Mirkhalili, 2018: 24). Renowned sociological theorists, including Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber, have consistently highlighted the diversity of individual behaviors within religious systems. Scholars note that in developing countries, religion and religiosity are pivotal social variables undergoing profound transformations (Berger & Luckmann, 1996: 85). Society plays a critical role in shaping the religious perceptions of its members, who, in turn, internalize and normalize societal expectations (Jalali Moghaddam, 2000: 10). The central research question is: What are the dimensions of harm and dysfunction in the Arbaeen march? The findings suggest that the ceremony demands cognitive management and strategic oversight to effectively convey its significance to pilgrims and volunteers. The study concludes that reforming current practices, deepening religious understanding, and enhancing awareness of Hosseini teachings are essential for the Arbaeen march’s sustainability. Robertson Smith, an anthropologist predating Durkheim, emphasized the primacy of religious rituals and behaviors over doctrinal beliefs. Similarly, Bronislaw Malinowski argued that understanding religion necessitates a focus on its ritualistic practices (Hamilton, 2009: 199). Durkheim, in his sociological approach, prioritized the study of social realities, analyzing social facts in relation to their role within the division of labor. For Durkheim, the differentiation and cohesion of structural elements were critical, as societal cohesion sustains normalcy but can also engender social harms and deviations (Tanhaei, 2010: 164). Durkheim further posited that religious rituals serve both individual and collective purposes, fostering emotional bonds, cohesion, and unity among participants. These rituals cultivate solidarity through shared values and emotions (Jamshidiha & Ghobadi, 2007: 67). Georg Simmel argued that social life is grounded in the reciprocal interactions of its internal elements, which manifest in stable forms such as religious ceremonies, legal frameworks, property systems, and mass communication (Simmel, 2014: 32–33). Sociological studies of religion explore its interactions with other social phenomena, which can sometimes disrupt religious functions, leading to misconceptions that diminish religion’s societal role. Such disruptions may precipitate social crises, increased deviant behaviors, and weakened religious institutions (Bayat & Mirabbasi, 2018: 24). Robert Merton distinguished between “manifest functions” (intended and explicit) and “latent functions” (unintended and implicit) (Tavasoli, 2011: 227). His theory of social agreement suggests that individuals in a society often converge on shared methods to achieve common goals (Ritzer, 2008: 149). In Arbaeen Walk: Sociological Reflections (2018), Hesam Mazaheri examines the exponential growth of Iranian participation in the Arbaeen march and its negative consequences. He identifies shifts in religious cultural patterns, transformations in religious organization, political sensitization, intra-Shiite discursive conflicts, the deepening of the Shiite-Sunni divide, and the “Iranianization” of the Arbaeen phenomenon. Gharsian, in Arbaeen March: Capacities and Damages (2017: 10), critiques the Iranian government and the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) for their involvement in organizing the Arbaeen march as well as the Iraqi government’s inadequate planning, which prioritizes minor issues over critical infrastructure, thereby exacerbating harms. Tajbakhsh’s article in title “Damages of the Arbaeen Walk” (2022: 22) frames the Arbaeen march as a transnational, historical, multi-dimensional, and interfaith phenomenon. He argues that such a large-scale ritual inevitably encounters numerous challenges. Through a qualitative study employing observation and semi-structured interviews, Tajbakhsh identifies issues including the secularization of pilgrimage, wastefulness, environmental pollution, neglect of religious duties (notably prayers), sectarianism, Shiite-Sunni conflicts, propaganda by deviant groups, and the ostentatious display of Iranian luxury rest stations (Mawkibs) compared to simpler Iraqi ones. The Iranian Students polling Agency (ISPA) conducted a survey at the Mehran and Shalamcheh border terminals, assessing pilgrims’ satisfaction and identifying weaknesses and shortcomings in the Arbaeen march from the perspective of Iranian participants (ISPA, 2016). The main object in present study is to identify the pathology of the functions of the Arbaeen march.   Methodology This study adopts a qualitative approach, utilizing semi-structured interviews with forty academic and seminary professors from national research institutions, as well as in field interviews with pilgrimage, Iranian and Iraq’s processions and service stuffs. The research aimed to identify dysfunctions in the Arbaeen march through purposive sampling and data collection techniques, considering Iraq’s geographical context and aligning with civil society indicators in culture and development.   Findings Data analysis reveals that the primary issues pertain to cultural and social dimensions, including the formation of pilgrims’ mental perceptions, the influence of media promoters, and collective leadership. The shift away from the intrinsic religious meaning of the pilgrimage towards carnivalization poses significant harm. The emphasis on humanistic and hedonistic tendencies contributes to the “commodification of culture.” Effective damage analysis requires a comprehensive examination of the current state. From a religious-internal perspective, pilgrimage etiquette conflicts with certain behavioral patterns. Key reform principles include humility, simplicity, public participation, contentment with minimal facilities, avoidance of recreational activities, and the prevention of wastefulness.   Discussion and Conclusion The proposed solutions aim to articulate an ideal vision for the Arbaeen march. The identified harms stem from two primary sources: governmental executive roles and societal factors, particularly among pilgrims and event organizers. Consequently, tailored corrective measures are suggested for each identified issue. The most critical solution involves the government prioritizing intrinsic and executive responsibilities under organizational control, refraining from interfering in grassroots initiatives, managing community-based organizations, enhancing pilgrim transportation systems, developing content-driven educational programs, promoting religious-internal customs, and fostering sincerity and simplicity in hospitality practices.   References Abedini, Mohammad Reza (2019) The Steps of Love, Ma’aref Publishing, Qom. Bayat, Bahram; Mirabbasi, Hamid (2018) Sociology of Maddahi in Iran, Tehran: Institute of Islamic Culture and Sciences. Berger, Peter (2002) Belief without Prejudice, translated by Mohammad Savoji, Tehran: Nashr-e Ney. Gharsiyan, Morteza (2017) "Arbaeen Walk: Capacities and Harms," Moblghan Monthly, No. 220, Mehr & Aban, pp. 4-12. Giddens, Anthony (1999) Sociology, translated by Manouchehr Sabouri, Tehran: Ney. Hamilton, Malcolm (2009) Sociology of Religion, translated by Mohsen Salasi, Tehran: Tebyan ISPA: Iranian Students Polling Agency (2016) Survey Report on the Attitudes of Participants in the Arbaeen Walk. Jamshidiha, Gholamreza; Ghobadi, Alireza (2007) "A Sociological Analysis of Religious Rituals with Emphasis on Ashura," in Tarikh-e Eslam, No. 2, pp. 37-60. Ma’ini-Pour, Masoud (2015) Civilization, Rationality, Spirituality in the Context of Arbaeen, Tehran: Sooreh. Mirzayi, Kh. (2009) Research and Research Writing, Tehran: Sociologists Publications. Ritzer, George (2008) Sociological Theory in the Contemporary Era, translated by Mohsen Salasi, Tehran: Elmi. Sediq Sarvastani, Rahmatollah (1999) Social Pathology, Tehran: SAMT. Seyed, Reza (1995). Nahj al-Balagha, Qom: Dar al-Hijrah. Tajbakhsh, Gholamreza (2022) "Social Harms of the Arbaeen Walk: A Sociological Study," Shia Studies Biannual, Vol. 8, No. 22, pp. 114-137. Tosli, Gholam Abbas (2011) Sociological Theories, Tehran: SAMT.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> PhD Student in Political Sociology, Naragh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Naragh, Iran. <a href="mailto:sdr.neyestani45@gmail.com">sdr.neyestani45@gmail.com</a> <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Naragh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Naragh, Iran.  <a href="mailto:mhpouryani@yahoo.com">mhpouryani@yahoo.com</a> <a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">***</a> Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Naragh Branch, Islamic Azad University.  <a href="mailto:hajdaryzadeh@rihu.ac.ir">hajdaryzadeh@rihu.ac.ir</a>در سال&zwnj;های اخیر، راهپیمایی اربعین ابعاد کارکردی و ظرفیت&zwnj;های تمدنی به خود گرفته است. از اینرو از وقوع آسیب&zwnj;&zwnj;ها و ضعف کارکردی نیز در امان نیست. مسئله اصلی مقاله حاضر، واکاوی شکاف میان وضعیت موجود و حالت مطلوب رفتاری و احیاناً انحراف از هنجارهاست. هدف مطالعه ریشه&zwnj;یابی ناهنجاری&zwnj;ها برای کنترل و رفع کاستی&zwnj;های این گردهمایی دینی است. روش اجرای پژوهش، روش کیفی مصاحبه عمیق با چهل نفر از اساتید حوزه و دانشگاه و مطالعه اسنادی (سفرنامه&zwnj;ها و گزارش&zwnj;ها)، مشاهده مشارکتی و مطالعه گزارشهای مردمی است. یافته&zwnj;های این پژوهش شامل مسائل ناظر به ابعاد آسیب&zwnj;شناسانه است که در هفت دستۀ «مسائل مدیریت اجرایی»، «فرهنگی و اجتماعی»، «بهداشتی و محیط&zwnj;زیستی»، «دینی و اعتقادی»، «سیاسی و بین&zwnj;المللی»، «اقتصاد و بازار» و در دو حوزۀ اصلی «تمرکز دولت بر تقویت زیرساخت&zwnj;ها» و «حفظ سرمایه اجتماعی و توجّه به الگوهای رفتاری و کنش&zwnj;های ارزشی برای ارائه تصویر مطلوب تمدنی و اجتناب از سویه&zwnj;&zwnj;های کارناوالی و غیر ارزشی اربعین» است. در نتیجه مسئله آسیب&zwnj;شناسی پدیدۀ اربعین در ساختار اجرایی و رفع کاستی&zwnj;ها و «بازگشت به &zwnj;معنای دروندینی زیارت کربلا» که از تفرّجی&zwnj; شدن آسیب&zwnj; دیده، باید اصلاح شود. موضوعاتی همچون اختلافات قومی، نگاه و انتظارات تفرّجی، خرافات و بدعت&zwnj;گذاری دین، طرح اندیشه افراطی، کمبود وسایل نقلیه، پسماند مواد غذایی و زباله و بی&zwnj;نظمی، مجموعه&zwnj;ای از آسیب&zwnj;های راهپیمایی اربعین است.

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مرکز منطقه ای اطلاع رسانی علوم و فناوریپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X4132025713A study of interpersonal violence among the youth of Fars province with emphasis on individual and social componentsمطالعه خشونت بين فردي در ميان جوانان استان فارس با تأکید بر مؤلفه های فردی و اجتماعی3159faمریمسروشاستادیار گروه علوم رفتاری، جهاد دانشگاهي فارس، ایران صدیقه البرزیپژوهشگر گروه علوم رفتاری، جهاد دانشگاهی فارس، شیراز، ایران 202529Study of Interpersonal Violence Among Youth in Fars Province with Emphasis on Individual and Social Components   Maryam Soroush<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Sedigha Alborzi<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>   In Fars Province, interpersonal violence manifests as disputes, physical assaults, and homicides, with young individuals frequently identified as perpetrators. This study aims to investigate the individual and social factors contributing to interpersonal violence among youth. Employing a survey method, the research targeted youth aged 18–35 in Fars Province. A total of 1,627 questionnaires were collected and analyzed using multi-stage cluster sampling from the cities of Shiraz, Lar, Darab, and Abadeh. The most significant factors influencing violence levels were engagement in other high-risk behaviors, life satisfaction, and a history of violence among peers. The findings indicate that, first, social factors play a more substantial role than psychological factors in reducing societal violence. Second, to effectively address social factors, macro-level strategic policies aimed at reducing inequality and promoting development should be prioritized to foster a hopeful outlook for youth. The development of social institutions that enhance problem-solving and negotiation skills, instill a sense of achievement, and institutionalize participation can promote civic approaches to success and conflict prevention within the social structure, ultimately contributing to a long-term reduction in interpersonal violence.   Keywords: Youth, Interpersonal Violence, Social Factors, High-Risk Behaviors, Fars Province.   Introduction The prevalence of high-risk behaviors represents a critical public health concern, increasingly recognized by health organizations, law enforcement, and social policymakers as a significant societal issue due to rapid social transformations. Research indicates that high-risk behaviors, such as smoking cigarettes or hookah, alcohol consumption, drug use, and unsafe sexual practices, typically emerge during adolescence and young adulthood, often co-occurring and amplifying each other’s effects (Marzban, 2018: 46). The prevalence of such behaviors among youth can cause harm to both themselves and others, necessitating attention even when their incidence is low. Persistent engagement in these risky behaviors may foster antisocial subcultures, contributing to insecurity, fear of crime, social anxiety, and diminished trust within communities (Saadati, 2020: 110). Violence, in its various forms at individual and collective levels, often underreported to law enforcement, constitutes one of the most pressing challenges facing contemporary societies (Zarei et al., 2020: 139). Today, violence in private and public spheres has become a growing social issue, increasingly normalized as part of daily behavior for many individuals. The widespread rise in violence is neither befitting of an ethical society nor should it be regarded as a natural phenomenon to be ignored. Violence in response to others’ aggression marks the onset of social violence, transforming an individual issue into a collective one. Addressing violence and striving for its prevention and reduction inherently engages with and mitigates numerous other social challenges. To this end, this study was designed to examine interpersonal violence among youth, aiming to map its prevalence, identify the social and psychological factors influencing it, and determine the contribution of each factor to interpersonal violence. High-risk behaviors are categorized into two types: those endangering the health and well-being of the individual, such as drug use, alcohol consumption, smoking, and unsafe sexual practices, and those threatening the well-being of others, including theft, aggression, violence, and truancy from school or home. Prior research identifies multiple factors contributing to high-risk behaviors. According to the biopsychosocial model, biological (e.g., hormones), cognitive (e.g., risk perception and self-esteem), and social (e.g., socialization influences, particularly parents and peers) factors underlie these behaviors (Tajabadi et al., 2020: 138). This study adopts the Problem Behavior Theory, a comprehensive multivariate psychological-social framework that examines the interplay of individual and social factors in shaping normative and problematic behaviors within their social context. The theory comprises three interconnected systems: personality, environment, and behavior (Eslami et al., 2010: 61). These systems include risk and protective factors, such as motivation, beliefs, and personal control within the personality system, and parents, peers, and perceived norms regarding problematic behaviors within the environment system, which collectively influence the likelihood of engaging in problematic or socially acceptable behaviors. However, broader social structures also exert influence on the individual’s personality and environment through structural variables. The personality, perceived environment, and behavioral systems have the most direct impact on the occurrence of problematic behaviors. Within each system, variables are either motivating or controlling, producing a dynamic state termed “proneness,” which indicates the likelihood of problematic behavior. Proneness can be categorized as personality proneness, systemic proneness, and behavioral proneness. When proneness is present across all three systems, it forms the concept of overall psychosocial proneness, a central construct in this theory for predicting the occurrence and transformation of problematic behaviors (Jessor et al., 1991: 18). Jessor identified interactions among the systems, noted that risk factors predict behavioral changes more effectively than protective factors, and highlighted the peer group’s behavioral patterns as the most influential (Eslami et al., 2010: 62). Jessor and colleagues further developed this model through longitudinal studies initiated in the 1970s, monitoring adolescents’ problematic and normative behaviors with large samples. By the 1980s, the model was extended to young adulthood, demonstrating its applicability beyond adolescence and providing valuable insights into adolescents’ social development pathways.   Methodology This study employed a quantitative survey method. The statistical population comprised males and females aged 15–35 residing in urban areas of Fars Province, totaling 1,017,644 individuals according to the 2016 census, with 642,664 in Shiraz and 354,872 in other urban areas. Given the geographical scope, Fars Province was divided into four regions, and the most populous city in each—Shiraz, Lar, Darab, and Abadeh—was selected. In each city, eligible participants were identified through randomly selected areas based on municipal zoning maps, and data were collected via household sampling. The sample size was 1,658 individuals, and the research instrument was a researcher-designed questionnaire. Face validity was established by consulting field experts, who reached a consensus on the appropriateness of the survey tool. The reliability of the questionnaire items was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. Bivariate and multivariate relationships were analyzed using SPSS software version 22.   Findings The results indicate that families generally exhibit more protective behaviors against high-risk activities compared to peers. Another mid-level factor influencing violence is the immediate living environment outside the family, namely the neighborhood. Higher levels of neighborhood violence correlate with increased interpersonal violence among youth. Notably, one-third of the youth reported no civic engagement, even at the level of voluntary group membership. Among psychological variables, empathy skills and self-esteem both reduce violence levels, with the relationship between self-esteem and violence being twice as strong as that between empathy and interpersonal violence. Engagement in other high-risk behaviors emerged as the most significant predictor of interpersonal violence. Respondents involved in verbal and physical violence who had minimal or no engagement in other high-risk behaviors exhibited significantly lower violence levels compared to those heavily involved in smoking, risky sexual behaviors, or with a history of conviction. Comparing respondents’ reported sexual activity in the past three months with their marital status reveals that some engaged in extramarital sexual relationships. Additionally, 23.2% reported having more than one sexual partner, and 34.2% experienced their first sexual encounter before age 18, indicating a shift in the younger generation’s values and attitudes toward family and sexual relationships. The most significant factors influencing interpersonal violence include engagement in other high-risk behaviors, self-esteem, a history of violence among peers, access to alcohol, peers’ protective behavioral patterns, and dissatisfaction with life, work, and education. The findings underscore that social factors outweigh psychological factors in explaining the drivers of interpersonal violence. Among psychological factors, self-esteem was more influential, with lower self-esteem associated with higher violence levels. A history of peer violence, particularly during school years, and peer behavioral patterns were also significant. Furthermore, dissatisfaction with life, work, and education creates psychological and social conditions conducive to physical and verbal violence in personal and social interactions.   Discussion and Conclusion In summary, a safe and supportive environment (family and peers), satisfaction with life, an optimistic future outlook, and a belief in one’s value and ability to achieve that outlook (self-esteem) can reduce violence. Research suggests that self-worth significantly enables individuals to seek non-violent solutions to conflicts, reducing the likelihood of resorting to physical or verbal violence (Hu et al., 2023: 14). Solutions to social issues, including high-risk behaviors, lie in multi-level policies within the social structure. Interventions are needed at the micro level (individual and interpersonal relationships), meso level (family, local community, and civil society), and macro level (economic and social policymaking and governance). At the micro level, fostering a peaceful and supportive environment through educational policies in schools, emphasizing life skills training (problem-solving, anger management, empathy, assertiveness, and self-confidence), is recommended. At the meso level, strengthening connections between individuals and their social environment is critical for reducing interpersonal violence. Enhancing community engagement at neighborhood and city levels, increasing social capital, promoting participation in local governance, and establishing small-scale institutions to foster individual and group identity can bridge gender, ethnic, and other divides, enhance teamwork and social cohesion, and prevent interpersonal violence. At the macro level, improving governance quality is proposed to ensure that macroeconomic and socio-political development variables create a hopeful and secure outlook for youth, providing a foundation for implementing micro- and meso-level solutions to reduce social violence.   References Eslami, A.A., Ghafranipour, F., Ghobari Bonab, B., Shojaeizadeh, D., Amin Shokravi, F., & Ghazi Tabatabaei, M. (2010) “A theoretical model based on Problem Behavior Theory to explain problematic behaviors, focusing on the mediating role of psychosocial factors.” Journal of Social Security Studies, No. 22, pp. 59–81. [in Persian] Hu, Y., Cai, Y., Gun, Y., & He, N. (2023) “The relationship between self-esteem and aggressive behavior among Chinese adolescents: A moderated chain mediation model.” Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1191134. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1191134. Jessor, R., Donovan, J.E., & Costa, F.M. (1991) Beyond Adolescence: Problem Behavior Theory and Young Adult Development. Cambridge University Press. Marzban, A. (2018) “Investigating the prevalence of high-risk behaviors among adolescents in Qom.” Journal of Pars University of Medical Sciences, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 44–51. . [in Persian] Saadati, M. (2020) “A sociological study of the role of social processes in explaining high-risk behaviors.” Journal of Strategic Research on Social Issues in Iran, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 109–134. Tajabadi, Z., Dehghani, F., & Saleh Zadeh, M. (2020) “The role of time perspective and peer rejection in predicting high-risk behaviors among adolescents in Yazd.” Journal of Health Education and Health Promotion, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 129–141. Zarei, M., Monazami Tabar, J., & Asad Begi, M. (2020) “Investigating social factors affecting conflict and interpersonal violence among youth with an emphasis on social security (Case study: Youth aged 18–30 in Hamedan).” Journal of Social Order and Security, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 139–159.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Assistant Professor, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Fars University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran. soroush@acecr.ac.ir <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Researcher, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Fars University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran. alborzi254@gmail.comاستان فارس در سالهاي متوالي داراي بالاترين نرخ خشونت بين فردي به شكل نزاع، ضرب و جرح و قتل در كشور بوده و در اكثر موارد جوانان مرتكب اين خشونتها شده&zwnj;اند. هدف تحقيق بررسي عوامل فردي و اجتماعي مؤثر بر بروز خشونت بين فردي در ميان جوانان است. روش تحقيق پيمايشي و جامعه آماري جوانان 35-18 سال استان فارس هستند. اطلاعات تحقيق از چهار شهرستان جمعآوري شده و 1627 پرسشنامه از شهرستانهاي شيراز، لار، داراب و آباده تحليل شدند. در تحليل دو متغيره خشونت بين فردي با درگيري در ساير رفتارهاي پرخطر، عزت نفس، سابقه خشونت در ميان دوستان، الگوي رفتار دوستان، در دسترس بودن الكل، مرد بودن، رضايت كم از زندگي و كار، مشاركت مدني پايين، كارآمدي جمعي محله و سن در ارتباط است. در تحليل چند متغيره مهمترين عوامل موثر بر ميزان خشونت درگيري درساير رفتارهاي پرخطر، رضايت از زندگي، سابقه خشونت بين دوستان بوده است. نتايج نشان ميدهد كه براي كاهش خشونت در جامعه اولاٌ تكيه بر عوامل اجتماعي اهميت بيشتري نسبت به عوامل روانشناختي دارند. در ثاني براي تأثيرگذاري بر عوامل اجتماعي بايد سياستهاي راهبردي كلان براي كاهش نابرابري و توسعه را در دستور كار قرار داد كه موجد تصوير اميدواركننده زندگي در آينده براي جوانان باشد.

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مرکز منطقه ای اطلاع رسانی علوم و فناوریپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X4132025713Study of the Consequences of Drug Infiltration Entering into Prisons in Western Iranمطالعۀ پیامدهای ورود مواد مخدر به زندان‌های غرب کشور6191faرشیداحمدی فردانشیار گروه آموزش علوم اجتماعی دانشگاه فرهنگیان تهران، ایران عدنانحسینیاستادیار گروه روان‌شناسی دانشگاه فرهنگیان، تهران، ایران 2024113Study of the Consequences of Drug Infiltration  Entering into Prisons in Western Iran   Rashid Ahmadifar<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Adnan Hosseini<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a> This study aims to quantitatively and qualitatively investigate the consequences of the infiltration of prohibited items, particularly narcotics, into Iranian prisons and to propose strategies for controlling and reducing their transfer. Employing a mixed-method approach, the research focused on prisons in western Iran. Through convenience sampling, five provinces—Kurdistan, Ilam, Hamedan, Kermanshah, and West Azerbaijan—were selected. A sample of 242 prisoners was chosen using stratified random sampling based on Cochran’s formula, proportional to the prisoner population reported by the Prison Organization. Data were collected via a researcher-designed questionnaire. Quantitative findings revealed that the entry, distribution, and use of prohibited items in the studied prisons are associated with extensive negative emotional consequences, including anxiety, stress, chronic fear, insecurity, sadness, depression, hopelessness, suicidal ideation, and attempts, as well as offers to collaborate in smuggling, distributing, and consuming these items. Qualitative results identified key reasons for the infiltration of prohibited items, including organized criminal networks, weak regulations, profitability of drug smuggling, and inadequate control and inspection facilities. Proposed solutions were categorized into four groups: cultural factors (e.g., prisoner employment and recreation), control and monitoring policies, managerial factors, and legal and regulatory measures. The findings indicate that the presence of narcotics in prisons has profound negative impacts on both prison staff and inmates across various dimensions. Keywords: Narcotics, Drug Infiltration into Prisons, Prisoners, Prisons in Western Iran.   Introduction Drug addiction is a pervasive social phenomenon and recognized social reality (Giddens, 1976; Anderson, 2016). It remains one of the most pressing challenges facing societies today (Gharehchahi et al., 2023). Historical analyses of drug misuse demonstrate that consumption and abuse have coexisted for millennia (Bagheri et al., 2023). Conceptually, addiction is a severe, chronic, neurological, and complex disorder influenced by genetic, physiological, and social factors (Mirzaei Moghaddam et al., 2023). The confined environment and interpersonal dynamics within prisons may predispose inmates to drug use (Marsden et al., 2020; Nordek et al., 2022; Capasso et al., 2021). Consequently, addiction, particularly the reasons for and consequences of drug infiltration into prisons, constitutes a critical issue. The Prison Organization’s regulations explicitly address the smuggling of prohibited items into prisons in Articles 30, 31, 88, and 163. Failure to implement robust preventive measures incurs significant costs for inmates, their families, and society at large. In such circumstances, prisons deviate from their intended rehabilitative function, potentially transforming into environments that perpetuate criminal behavior (Foucault, 2011). Without effective monitoring strategies, particularly regarding movement within prisons, the institution risks becoming a “school” for crime rather than a mechanism for reform (Sotoudeh, 2010). Conversely, prisons that successfully prevent drug infiltration create safer, more adaptive environments, mitigating associated harms (Kolind & Duke, 2016). Despite ongoing efforts, the situation in Iranian prisons remains suboptimal, with narcotics infiltrating in significant quantities and varieties, posing a persistent challenge. This study seeks to address three research questions: What are the primary types of narcotics and methods of their infiltration into prisons? What are the consequences of drug infiltration into prisons? What strategies can mitigate this issue?   Theoretical Framework Drawing on social control theory, deviant behavior results from weakened social controls (Tosli, cited in Habibi, 2018). This theory posits that individuals are naturally inclined toward deviance unless restrained by social bonds. Weak or broken ties to social institutions remove societal constraints, increasing the likelihood of law-breaking (Turner, 2006). The theory emphasizes the role of self-esteem and positive self-concept as deterrents to deviance, expecting individuals to be active, self-regulating, and responsible agents capable of controlling their behavior and emotions. Additionally, deviance is considered a learned behavior. Sutherland’s differential association theory suggests that criminal behavior is acquired through interactions within intimate groups, such as peers or family, rather than inherited (Robertson, 2010). Akers extends this by arguing that deviance persists when perceived as rewarding, reinforcing further deviant acts (Habibi, 2018). Bandura’s social learning theory similarly posits that deviant behavior is learned through interactions, particularly in small groups, where individuals adopt definitions of legal norms as appropriate or inappropriate, leading to law-breaking when exposed to norms favoring deviance (Schultz, cited in Habibi, 2018).   Methodology This study adopts a mixed-method approach with a convergent triangulation design, collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data separately before integrating findings (Delavar & Kushki, 2013). Quantitative data were gathered using a researcher-designed questionnaire, while qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The study population comprised prisoners in western Iranian prisons, with five provinces (Kurdistan, Ilam, Hamedan, Kermanshah, and West Azerbaijan) selected via convenience sampling. For the quantitative component, 242 prisoners (67 from Hamedan, 26 from Ilam, 48 from West Azerbaijan, 52 from Kermanshah, and 49 from Kurdistan) were selected using stratified random sampling based on Cochran’s formula, proportional to each province’s prisoner population.   Findings The study revealed several key insights regarding methods of drug infiltration into prisons. First, swallowing remains the most prevalent method, despite being a well-known technique (RaeisiNejad, 2017; Kolind & Duke, 2016). This suggests that disrupting this method could significantly reduce drug infiltration, potentially due to inadequate advanced detection equipment or inconsistent enforcement by prison staff. Second, visitors play a significant role in smuggling drugs, particularly in Kermanshah and West Azerbaijan, indicating that some visits are orchestrated for smuggling purposes despite existing preventive measures (Asadifard & Hemmati, 2021). Third, both prisoners and prison staff identified inmates and visitors as primary actors in drug smuggling, with prisoners in most provinces (except Kurdistan) acknowledging their significant role. This consistency validates the data and highlights these groups as critical intervention points. However, some respondents suggested involvement of prison personnel, which, while not conclusive, warrants further investigation (Ghorbani et al., 2018). Another finding concerns the inadequacy of penalties for drug smuggling within prisons. Both prisoners and staff noted that lenient or inconsistently enforced punishments fail to deter smuggling, as offenders anticipate leniency or loopholes (Hosseini, 2017). This underscores the need for stricter, consistently enforced regulations, updated penalties, and comprehensive training for staff and inmates to create a lawful and resolute prison environment.   Discussion and Conclusion The infiltration of narcotics into prisons has far-reaching negative consequences, affecting inmates’ mental health, security, and rehabilitation prospects, while undermining the prison system’s purpose. Effective prevention requires multifaceted strategies, including enhanced detection technologies, stricter visitor screening, robust penalties, and cultural initiatives like prisoner engagement programs. By addressing these factors, prisons can better fulfill their rehabilitative mandate, reducing deviance and fostering safer environments.   References Asadifard, M., & Hemmati, J. (2021) Identifying Factors and Consequences of Illegal Weapons Use in Kermanshah Province. Journal of Disciplinary Management Research, 16(2), 73-101. Bustani, E. (2012) Social Factors Affecting Recidivism and Crime Repetition Among Men with Emphasis on Prison Effects (Case Study: Yasuj Central Prison). MA Thesis, Payame Noor University, Tehran Center. Delavar, A., & Kushki, S. (2013) Mixed Methods Research. Tehran: Editing Publications. Dolan, K., Moazen, B., Noori, A., Rahimzadeh, S., Farzadfar, F., & Hariga, F. (2015) People who inject drugs in prison: HIV prevalence, transmission and prevention. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26, S12-S15. Foucault, M. (2011) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (N. Sarkhosh & A. Jahandideh, Trans.). Tehran: Ney Publications. (Original work published 1975). Ghorbani, E., et al. (2018) Performance Evaluation of Drug Combat Units in Urmia Police Stations. Journal of Disciplinary Management Research, 13(2), 277-296. Giddens, A. (1976) New Rules of Sociological Method. London: Hutchinson. Hosseini, S.M. (2017) Preventive Strategies for Denying Prisoners Access to Drugs in QezelHesar Prison. MA Thesis, Applied Science University, Tehran Unit. Martinez, R. (2006) History of Criminal Law in Europe (M.R. Goodarzi Boroujerdi, Trans.). Tehran: Majd Publications. (Original work published 1983). Pourarin, F., et al. (2013) Hunger Strike: A New Action in the Structure of the Modern Prison (1925-1941). Social History Research, 3(1), 1-22. Rahimi, M., et al. (2020) Presenting a Knowledge Management Model for Educational-Cultural Affairs in Tehran Province Prisons. Journal of Disciplinary Management Research, 13(2), 285-306. Robertson, I. (2010) Introduction to Sociology (H. Behravan, Trans.). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi. (Original work published 1987). Seif, A.A. (2012) Educational Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation (5th ed.). Tehran: Doran Publications.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Department of Social Science Education, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran.  <a href="mailto:rahmadrash76@yahoo.com">rahmadrash76@yahoo.com</a> <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran. <a href="mailto:adnan@gmail.com">adnan@gmail.com</a>پژوهش حاضر با هدف مطالعه کمی و کیفی پیامدهای ورود اقلام ممنوعه به داخل زندانهای ایران و ارائه راهکارهایی برای کنترل و کاهش انتقال اقلام ممنوعه به شیوه آمیخته انجام شده است. جامعۀ پژوهش شامل زندانهای غرب کشور است که از میان آنها به شیوه نمونهگیری در دسترس، پنج استان کردستان، ایلام، همدان، کرمانشاه و آذربایجان غربی که از بین تمامی زندانیها و عوامل حفاظت زندانهای پنج استان مورد مطالعه، به شیوه سهمیهای- تصادفی و با استفاده از فرمول کوکران، تعداد 242 نفر زندانی انتخاب شد و سپس بر اساس تعداد زندانیان اعلامی توسط سازمان زندانها و به&zwnj; صورت سهمیه&zwnj;ای، حجم نمونه هر استان انتخاب گردید. برای جمع&zwnj;آوری دادهها از پرسشنامه محققساخته استفاده شد. نتایج بخش کمّی نشان داد که ورود، توزیع و استفاده از اقلام ممنوعه داخل زندانهای مورد مطالعه میتواند با پیامدهای گسترده منفی هیجانی از جمله احساس اضطراب و استرس، ترس و ناامنی مزمن، غم و افسردگی و ناامیدی، پدیدآیی افکار خودکشی و اقدام عملی به خودکشی و همچنین پیشنهاد همکاری در وارد کردن، توزیع و مصرف این اقلام ممنوعه برای گروه زندانیها همراه باشد. در بخش کیفی، عمدهترین دلایل ورود اقلام ممنوعه شامل وجود باندهای خلاف، ضعف قوانین، سودآوری ورود مواد و ضعف امکانات کنترل و بازرسی است. راهکارهای پیشنهادی، ذیل چهار گروه کلیِ عوامل فرهنگی (اشتغال و سرگرمی زندانیان)، سیاستهای کنترل و نظارت، عوامل مدیریتی و مسائل قانونی و آیین&zwnj;نامهای طبقهبندی شد. نتایج نشان داد که وجود انواع مواد مخدر در زندانها می&zwnj;تواند پیامدهای منفی گستردهای در ابعاد مختلف هم بر عوامل زندان و هم بر زندانیان داشته باشد.

http://risi.ihss.ac.ir/ar/Article/Download/48466

مرکز منطقه ای اطلاع رسانی علوم و فناوریپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X4132025713A Comparative Analysis of Television and Virtual Social Networks on Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships: A Case Study of Married Women in Mashhadبررسی تطبیقی تلویزیون و شبکه‌های اجتماعی مجازی بر نگرش به روابط فرازناشویی (مورد مطالعه زنان متأهل شهر مشهد)93126faسپیدهبرقچیدانشجوی دکتری گروه علوم اجتماعی، واحد قوچان، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، قوچان، ایران حامدبخشیدانشیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی پژوهشکده گردشگری جهاد دانشگاهی، مشهد، ایران0000000203097253مسعود ایمانیاناستادیار گروه علوم اجتماعی، واحد قوچان، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، قوچان، ایران 2025220A Comparative Analysis of Television and Virtual Social Networks on Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships: A Case Study of Married Women in Mashhad Sepdieh Barghchi<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Hamed Bakhshi<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a> Masoud Imanian<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">***</a>   This study investigates the influence of media consumption on attitudes toward extramarital relationships among married women in Mashhad, Iran. In contemporary society, mass media, including satellite television and virtual social networks, frequently portray extramarital relationships in an appealing manner, often overlooking their negative consequences. Drawing on media and sociological theories such as Social Learning, Cultivation, and Social Cognition, repeated exposure to such content may contribute to the normalization of extramarital relationships. Utilizing a survey method with a researcher-designed questionnaire, this study examines the relationship between media consumption and attitudes toward extramarital relationships. The statistical population comprised married women aged 20–65 in Mashhad, with a random sample of 400 participants drawn from 20 neighborhoods. Attitudes, as the dependent variable, were assessed using eight vignette-based scenarios. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25.0 and R version 4.3.2, The findings reveal a positive association between virtual social network use and permissive attitudes toward extramarital relationships, contrasted by an inverse relationship with television consumption. These results underscore the need for educational and realistic media content addressing the consequences of extramarital relationships.   Keywords: Extramarital Relationships, Media Consumption, Virtual Social Networks, Television, Vignette   Introduction Extramarital relationships, defined as romantic or sexual relationships outside the marital framework, have significant emotional, social, and economic implications for individuals, families, and communities, making them a critical focus of sociological and psychological research. In the contemporary era, media consumption—encompassing television and virtual social networks—has emerged as a pivotal factor shaping attitudes toward such relationships. Media often glamorize or normalize extramarital relationships, potentially diminishing their moral stigma. This study examines the differential impact of television and virtual social network consumption on attitudes toward extramarital relationships among married women aged 20–65 in Mashhad, Iran. Grounded in a comprehensive theoretical framework and employing a survey methodology with a vignette-based approach, the research provides insights into how media influences social norms and values within a culturally specific context. This study integrates multiple theoretical perspectives to elucidate the relationship between media consumption and attitudes toward extramarital relationships: <ol> <li>Cultivation Theory (Gerbner, 1976): This theory posits that prolonged exposure to media content shapes individuals’ perceptions of social reality. Frequent depictions of extramarital relationships as commonplace or desirable may normalize such behaviors, reducing their perceived moral transgression.</li> <li>Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986): This framework suggests that individuals acquire behaviors and attitudes by observing media characters. Portrayals of extramarital relationships with positive outcomes or minimal consequences may foster more permissive attitudes among viewers.</li> <li>Uses and Gratifications Theory (Rubin, 2009): This theory emphasizes that individuals actively select media content to meet psychological or social needs. Those dissatisfied with their marital relationships may gravitate toward media portraying extramarital relationships as a means of emotional or sexual fulfillment, reinforcing permissive attitudes.</li> <li>Framing Theory (Entman, 1993): Media frames influence how audiences interpret issues. Romanticized or justificatory portrayals of extramarital relationships may lead to moral disengagement, where individuals downplay the ethical implications of such behaviors.</li> <li>Moral Foundations Theory (Haidt, 2012): This theory argues that moral judgments are based on five foundations: care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and sanctity/degradation. Media content prioritizing certain foundations (e.g., care over loyalty) may shift moral boundaries, influencing attitudes toward extramarital relationships. This integrated framework provides a robust lens for examining how media consumption shapes attitudes through normalization, modeling, need fulfillment, narrative framing, and moral realignment.</li> </ol>   The study aims to: <ul> <li>Investigate the relationship between media consumption (television and virtual social networks) and attitudes toward extramarital relationships.</li> <li>Examine the influence of different media content types (e.g., social media posts, television programs) on these attitudes.</li> <li>Explore the moderating role of socio-cultural factors, such as age and residential area, in the impact of media consumption.</li> <li>Offer evidence-based recommendations for media policy and social interventions to mitigate the negative consequences of extramarital relationships.</li> </ul>   Methodology The study employed a survey-based approach, utilizing a researcher-designed questionnaire to collect data from 400 married women aged 20–65 in Mashhad, Iran, in year 2022. A multi-stage cluster sampling method was used, with 20 neighborhoods selected through population-weighted randomization to ensure representativeness. The sample size was calculated using Cochran’s formula, with iterative sampling to account for the unknown variance of the dependent variable (attitudes toward extramarital relationships).   Measurement of Variables <ul> <li>Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships: Given the sensitive nature of the topic, attitudes were measured indirectly using eight vignettes depicting scenarios involving extramarital relationships (e.g., loneliness, emotional deprivation, forced marriage). Respondents rated their agreement with four statements per vignette (e.g., “I sympathize with her,” “Her actions were wrong”) on a scale from “completely disagree” (0) to “completely agree” (4). The vignettes were selected through a rigorous Thurstone scaling process, involving 15 judges who evaluated 20 initial vignettes for intensity and ambiguity. The final eight vignettes yielded a composite attitude score ranging from 0 to 128, scaled to 0–100 for interpretation. The scale demonstrated high reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.953) and construct validity (CFI = 0.978, RMSEA = 0.079, SRMR = 0.031).</li> <li>Media Consumption: Respondents reported their usage of various media, including virtual social networks (Instagram, WhatsApp, Telegram, Twitter), television, satellite TV, films, music, radio, books, magazines, and newspapers. The questionnaire captured the primary media device, content type, and daily usage duration.</li> </ul>   Data Analysis Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25.0 for descriptive and bivariate analyses (e.g., correlation, ANOVA) and R version 4.3.2 with the Lavaan package for structural equation modeling (SEM). Confirmatory factor analysis validated the attitude scale, while SEM tested the conceptual model linking media consumption to attitudes, with age and socio-cultural context as mediators. One-way ANOVA and repeated measures ANOVA examined differences in attitudes across demographic groups and vignette scenarios.     Ethical Considerations The study adhered to ethical principles, including informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw. Respondents were informed of the study’s objectives, and data were anonymized to ensure privacy.   Findings Demographic Profile All respondents were married women, with 26.4% having less than a high school education, 35.8% high school graduates, 29.0% with associate or bachelor’s degrees, and 8.8% with master’s or doctoral degrees. Approximately 74.8% were housewife, 23.0% were employed, and 2.3% were unemployed, retired, or students.   Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships Scaled attitude scores ranged from 0 to 78.9 (out of 100), with a mean of 27.1 and a variance of 252.5. Attitudes showed no significant correlation with education but exhibited a negative correlation with age (r = -0.14, p = 0.005), indicating that older women held more negative views. Employed women displayed more permissive attitudes (mean = 39.0) than housewife (mean = 33.7), possibly due to workplace interactions normalizing extramarital relationships. Attitudes varied significantly across Mashhad’s neighborhoods, with traditional areas (e.g., Regions 2 and 7) showing more negative attitudes than younger, less traditional areas (e.g., Regions 11 and 12).   Vignette Analysis The “variety-seeking” vignette received the lowest empathy scores, while “forced marriage” elicited the highest. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant differences in empathy across vignettes (p < 0.001), with moral judgments driving empathy levels more than the absence of marital functionality. For instance, scenarios involving severe spousal illness (e.g., Alzheimer’s, paralysis) garnered less empathy than expected, likely due to sympathy for the afflicted spouse. Media Consumption Patterns Virtual social networks were the dominant medium (72.5% of respondents), followed by television (39.8%), books/magazines (8.0%), and newspapers (1.0%). Among social network users, WhatsApp (68.6%), Instagram (60.7%), and Telegram (19.0%) were prevalent, with average daily usage of 2.58 hours for Instagram, 1.72 hours for WhatsApp, and 1.80 hours for Telegram. Preferred content included life skills pages (60.8%) and lifestyle content (38.6%) on Instagram.   Relationships Between Media Consumption and Attitudes <ul> <li>Virtual Social Networks: A positive correlation was found between social network use and permissive attitudes toward extramarital relationships (r = 0.14, p = 0.004), particularly with Instagram (r = 0.16, p = 0.007). Specific activities, such as following life skills channels on Telegram (r = 0.40, p = 0.022) and chatting on WhatsApp (r = 0.20, p = 0.004), were associated with more permissive attitudes, while following sales channels on Telegram (r = -0.41, p = 0.018) correlated with negative attitudes.</li> <li>Television: Television consumption was inversely correlated with permissive attitudes (r = -0.22, p < 0.001). Religious programs (r = -0.17, p = 0.036), social documentaries (r = -0.76, p < 0.001), and dramas on the Tamasha network (r = -0.23, p = 0.015) reinforced negative attitudes, while scientific/nature documentaries showed a positive correlation (r = 0.17, p = 0.036).</li> <li>Books and Magazines: Reading duration was positively correlated with permissive attitudes (r = 0.32, p = 0.028), except for health-related content, which showed a negative correlation (r = -0.33, p = 0.023).</li> </ul>   Structural Equation Modeling SEM results confirmed significant paths: television consumption positively influenced negative attitudes (β = 0.37, p < 0.001), while virtual social network consumption negatively influenced attitudes (β = -0.41, p < 0.001). The model demonstrated excellent fit (RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.03).   Discussion and Conclusion The findings highlight the divergent impacts of television and virtual social networks on attitudes toward extramarital relationships. Virtual social networks, with their interactive and personalized nature, promote permissive attitudes by normalizing extramarital relationships and facilitating interpersonal connections. In contrast, television, as a mass medium with standardized content, reinforces traditional values, particularly through religious and social programming. The vignette-based approach effectively captured nuanced attitudes, revealing that moral judgments significantly influence empathy toward extramarital scenarios. Socio-cultural factors, such as age and neighborhood characteristics, further moderate these effects, underscoring the role of cultural context in shaping media influence. The study emphasizes the need for media literacy programs to foster critical engagement with virtual social network content. Policymakers should prioritize producing educational content that highlights the consequences of extramarital relationships to counter their normalization. Future research should explore additional mediators (e.g., religious beliefs, personality traits) and expand the sample to enhance generalizability. This study provides robust evidence that media consumption significantly shapes attitudes toward extramarital relationships among married women in Mashhad. Virtual social networks promote permissive attitudes, while television reinforces negative ones, with implications for family stability and social policy in Iran’s evolving cultural landscape.   References Bandura, A. (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Entman, R. M. (1993) Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x</a> Gerbner, G. (1976) Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26(2), 173–199. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x</a> Haidt, J. (2012) The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. Pantheon Books. Rubin, A. M. (2009) Uses-and-gratifications perspective on media effects. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research (3rd ed., pp. 165–184). Routledge.       <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Ph.D Student, Department of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch, Quchan, Iran. spid.barghchi@gmail.com <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Tourism Sociology Research Group, Tourism Research Institute, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR), Mashhad, Iran. h.bakhshi@acecr.ac.ir <a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">***</a> Assistant Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch, Quchan, Iran. Imanian1720<a href="mailto:spid.barghchi@gmail.com">@gmail.com</a>این پژوهش به بررسی تأثیر مصرف رسانه بر نگرش به روابط فرازناشویی در میان زنان متأهل شهر مشهد می&zwnj;پردازد. در دنیای امروز، رسانه&zwnj;های جمعی نظیر شبکه&zwnj;های ماهواره&zwnj;ای و شبکه&zwnj;های اجتماعی، محتوایی قابل &zwnj;توجه از روابط فرازناشویی را به تصویر می&zwnj;کشند که اغلب به&zwnj;صورت جذاب و با چشم&zwnj;پوشی از پیامدهای منفی آن ارائه می&zwnj;شود. بر اساس نظریه&zwnj;های رسانه و جامعه&zwnj;شناسی از جمله یادگیری اجتماعی، کاشت و شناخت اجتماعی، قرار گرفتن مکرر در معرض چنین محتوایی می&zwnj;تواند به عادی&zwnj;سازی روابط فرازناشویی منجر شود. در این مطالعه، با استفاده از روش پیمایش و ابزار پرسشنامه محقق&zwnj;&zwnj;ساخته، رابطه میان مصرف رسانه و نگرش به روابط فرازناشویی بررسی شد. جامعه آماری شامل زنان متأهل 20 تا 65 ساله شهر مشهد بود و نمونه&zwnj;ای تصادفی شامل 400 نفر از 20 محله مختلف شهر انتخاب شد. متغیر وابسته این پژوهش از طریق هشت داستانک طراحی&zwnj;شده برای سنجش نگرش به روابط فرازناشویی ارزیابی شد. تحلیل داده&zwnj;ها با استفاده از نرم&zwnj;افزار آماری SPSS نسخه 25.0 و زبان آماری R نسخه 4.3.2 انجام گرفت. یافته&zwnj;ها نشان می&zwnj;دهد که مصرف رسانه&zwnj;های اجتماعی با نگرش مثبت به روابط فرازناشویی مرتبط است، در حالی &zwnj;که استفاده از تلویزیون، رابطه&zwnj;ای معکوس با این نگرش دارد. این نتایج بر ضرورت تولید محتوای آموزشی و واقع&zwnj;گرا درباره پیامدهای روابط فرازناشویی در رسانه&zwnj;ها تأکید دارد.

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مرکز منطقه ای اطلاع رسانی علوم و فناوریپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X4132025713Voluntary Childlessness in the Cultural Context of Khuzestanعدم گرایش به فرزندآوری در بافت فرهنگی خوزستان127157faهنگامهآریا نژاددانشجوی دوره دکتری جمعیت¬شناسی واحد علوم تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران0000-0002-9332-5 جعفر کردزنگنهاستادیار گروه علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه پیام نور، ایران 0000000293325941منصور شریفی دانشیار جمعیت‌شناسی، گروه علوم اجتماعی، واحد گرمسار، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، گرمسار، ایران0000-0002-4946-49362025227Voluntary Childlessness in the Cultural Context of Khuzestan   Hengameh Aryanezhad<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Jafar Kordzangeneh <a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>  Mansour Sharifi <a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">***</a>   Voluntary childlessness, as a significant demographic characteristic of reproductive behavior, is the focus of this study. This research specifically examines the phenomenon among women in Khuzestan Province, Iran, using a qualitative methodology of the grounded theory approach. Data were collected through 28 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with childless women who, despite having no infertility issues, made a deliberate choice for lifelong childlessness. Data saturation was achieved, and analysis through open, axial, and selective coding resulted in 120 concepts, 19 subcategories, 6 main categories, and a core category identified as "childlessness as a lifestyle." The findings reveal that the choice of this lifestyle is not driven by a single factor nor emerges randomly in society. Instead, it is the outcome of a dynamic process wherein participants, by synthesizing various influencing factors, decide to adopt childlessness. Recommendations include implementing social policies to support women’s reproductive autonomy, developing public education and awareness programs to reduce negative attitudes and stereotypes toward childless women, and establishing employment support policies for these women.   Keywords: Voluntary Childlessness, Women, Cultural Transformations, Khuzestan Province, Lifestyle. Introduction Voluntary childlessness has emerged as a notable demographic phenomenon in contemporary societies, particularly in regions like Khuzestan Province, Iran, which has historically been characterized by strong cultural norms favoring high fertility. Economic, social, cultural, and psychological factors, alongside women’s lived experiences from childhood to adulthood, significantly influence the decision to remain permanently childless. This study seeks to provide a deeper understanding of this complex decision and its implications within the cultural context of Khuzestan.   Methodology This research adopted a qualitative approach based on grounded theory. Data were collected through 28 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with married women in Khuzestan who had no fertility issues but consciously chose lifelong childlessness. Data saturation was achieved, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the phenomenon. The data were analyzed through three levels of coding: open, axial, and selective. The findings were validated through participant checks and consultations with expert academics.   Findings The analysis yielded 120 concepts, 19 subcategories, and 6 main categories, with the core category identified as "childlessness as a lifestyle." Women’s decisions were shaped by causal conditions (e.g., economic and social challenges, upbringing experiences), contextual factors (e.g., time constraints, unstable support systems), and intervening conditions (e.g., increased educational attainment, economic instability). Strategies adopted by these women included conscious childlessness, self-determined lifestyles, and, in some cases, substituting children with pets.   Discussion and Conclusion The findings indicate that voluntary childlessness is not a random occurrence but a deliberate choice resulting from the interplay of multiple factors. Women in Khuzestan, influenced by challenging lived experiences and a critical perspective on traditional maternal roles, adopt childlessness to preserve personal autonomy, pursue professional goals, and navigate economic and social challenges. This decision aligns with broader cultural transformations and increasing social acceptance of childlessness in the region. Voluntary childlessness in Khuzestan is becoming institutionalized as a lifestyle choice. Policymakers can support this trend by promoting women’s reproductive autonomy, implementing public education initiatives to reduce social stigma, and developing flexible employment policies. Future research should explore the long-term impacts of childlessness on women’s quality of life in later years and its broader cultural implications.   References Correll, L. (2010) Anrufungen zur Mutterschaft. Eine wissenssoziologische Untersuchung von Kinderlosigkeit [Calls for motherhood. A scientific study of childlessness]. Münster: Verlag Westfälisches Dampfboot. Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007) Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American. Hollander, H (2007) Women Who Are Fecund but Do Not Wish to Have Children Outnumber the Involuntarily Childless prespective on sexuale and reproductive health, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/19312393/2007/39/2">Volume39, Issue2</a> pp. 120. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1359105312444647#con1">Doyle</a>, J; <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1359105312444647#con2"> Pooley</a>, J A and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1359105312444647#con3">Lauren Breen</a> (2012) “A phenomenological exploration of the childfree choice in a sample of Australian women” <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/HPQ">Journal of Health Psychology</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/hpqa/18/3">Volume 18, Issue 3</a>. Frejka T. Childlessness in the United States. In: Kreyenfeld M, Konietzka D, editors. Childlessness in Europe: contexts, causes, and consequences. Springer: New York; 2017. Glaser, Barney et al. (1967) Discovery of Grounded Theory, Transaction Publishers, U.S. Publisher. Graham, M (2013) “Why are childless women childless? Findings from an exploratory study in Victoria, Australia”. Deakin University. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/authored-by/Hara/Toshihiko">Hara</a>,T. (2008) Increasing Childlessness in Germany and Japan: Toward a Childless Society? Jappanes Journal of Sociology <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/14756781/2008/17/1">Volume17, Issue1</a>, November, pp. 42-62. Kreyenfeld. M, Konietzka . D (2017) Childlessness in Europe: Contexts, Causes, and Consequences, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research Rostock, Germany. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44667-7. Parlak S., Tekin I. (2020) A phenomenological study on voluntarily childless women. Psikoloji Çalışmaları/Studies in Psychology, 40(1), pp. 161–186. Settle, B., & Brumley, K. (2014) ‘It’s the Choices You Make That Get You There’: Decision Making Pathways of Childfree Women. Michigan Family Review, 18(1), 1–22. doi: 10.3998/ mfr.4919087.0018.102.         <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Ph.D. Student in Demography, Research Sciences Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.  <a href="mailto:h.aryanezhad@gmail.com">h.aryanezhad@gmail.com</a> <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Assistant Professor of Demography, Department of Social Sciences, Payam Noor University, Tehran, Iran. <a href="mailto:j.zangeneh@pnu.ac.ir">j.zangeneh@pnu.ac.ir</a> <a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">***</a> Associate professor of Demography, Department of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Garmsar Branch, Semnan, Iran. <a href="mailto:sharifim@ut.ac.ir">sharifim@ut.ac.ir</a> <pre class="tw-data-text tw-text-large tw-ta" dir="ltr" data-placeholder="Translation" data-ved="2ahUKEwiShcPs8OGLAxWviv0HHRW8OmQQ3ewLegQIBxAV"> </pre>پدیده بی&zwnj;فرزندی به&zwnj; عنوان یکی از ویژگی&zwnj;های جمعیت&zwnj;شناختی مرتبط با رفتار باروری، موضوع تحقیق حاضر است. این پژوهش به&zwnj; طور خاص و مستقل بر بی&zwnj;فرزندی ارادی زنان در استان خوزستان متمرکز و با روش کیفی و رویکرد نظریه زمینه&zwnj;ای انجام شد. با 28 مصاحبه نیمه&zwnj;ساختاریافته عمیق از زنان بی&zwnj;فرزند که مشکل ناباروری نداشته&zwnj;اند، ولی تصمیم به بی&zwnj;فرزندی دایمی گرفته بودند، اشباع دادهها حاصل شد. بر اساس سه سطح کدگذاری باز، محوری و انتخابی، در نهایت 120 مفهوم یا کد، 19 مقوله فرعی و 6 مقوله اصلی و مقوله هسته بی&zwnj;فرزندی به&zwnj;مثابه یک سبک زندگی از مجموع مصاحبهها کشف و به &zwnj;عنوان نتیجه، انتخاب این سبک از زندگی، محصول یک عامل نیست و به &zwnj;صورت تصادفی در جامعه شکل نگرفته است. این پدیده، نتیجه یک فرایند زمانی است که مشارکتکنندگان در نهایت با جمعبندی همه عواملی که در این فرایند اتفاق افتاده است، تصمیم به انجام کنش بیفرزندی گرفتهاند. ارائه سیاست&zwnj;های اجتماعی که از حق انتخاب زنان در زمینه فرزندآوری یا عدم فرزندآوری حمایت کند، توسعۀ برنامه&zwnj;های آموزشی و آگاهی&zwnj;افزایی عمومی برای کاهش نگرش&zwnj;های منفی و کلیشه&zwnj;ها درباره زنانی که تصمیم به بی&zwnj;فرزندی می&zwnj;گیرند و همچنین سیاستهای حمایتی شغلی برای این زنان پیشنهاد می&zwnj;گردد.

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مرکز منطقه ای اطلاع رسانی علوم و فناوریپژوهش انحرافات و مسائل اجتماعی3060-821X4132025713Estimating Household Demand for Tobacco Products in Iranبرآورد تقاضای خانوارهای ایرانی از محصولات دخانی159182fa محمد حسینامجدیدانش‌آموخته دکتری اقتصاد دانشگاه شهید باهنر، کرمان، ایران https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6569-7644مرضیهانحصاریدانش‌آموخته کارشناسی ارشد ریاضی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، ایران https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5108-970X202539Estimating Household Demand for Tobacco Products in Iran   Mohammad Hossein Amjadi <a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Marziye Enhesari <a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a>   Tobacco use poses a significant public health threat. This study estimates the demand function for tobacco products in Iran and calculates their income elasticity. Using data from the 2023 Household Income and Expenditure Survey, we first analyze household nicotine-related expenditures based on socio-economic characteristics. A Tobit regression model is then employed to estimate demand. All variables are statistically significant at the 99% confidence level. Income elasticity is estimated at 0.825, indicating that a 1% income increase leads to a 0.825% rise in tobacco expenditures. Effective intervention requires wide-ranging cooperation across public and private sectors. Proposed recommendations include: monitoring smoking patterns; implementing preventive policies; protecting against secondhand smoke; aiding cessation efforts; raising risk awareness; banning tobacco advertisements; combating smuggling; and enacting effective tax reforms.   Keywords: Tobacco Demand, Consequences of Tobacco Consumption, Income Elasticity, Household Expenditures, Tobit Model.   Introduction Tobacco consumption has multifaceted social implications, spanning cultural, psychological, economic, and public health domains. It correlates with reduced life quality, as smokers often report lower well-being. Moreover, tobacco use may act as a gateway to other substances. A household's consumption of tobacco products represents part of its total expenditures, which varies with its socio-economic priorities. Since each tobacco user is a purchaser, expenditure on tobacco serves as a valid proxy for actual consumption. Accurately understanding tobacco prevalence helps inform public health policy. In this context, we employ the 2023 Household Income and Expenditure Survey to estimate smoking prevalence in urban and rural Iran, identify socio-economic determinants of tobacco spending, and calculate income-based demand elasticity. Consequently, this study addresses three research questions: <ol> <li>How does household tobacco demand vary across socio-economic groups in Iran?</li> <li>What are the socio-economic determinants influencing household tobacco demand?</li> <li>What is the income elasticity of tobacco demand among Iranian households?</li> </ol> Systematic reviews of Iranian and international studies reveal a range of socio-economic influences on tobacco consumption (Table1). Findings vary, reflecting differences in population, methodology, and context.   Table1 – Socio-economic Determinants of Tobacco Consumption (+: positive effect, –: negative effect, /: no significant effect) <table> <tbody> <tr> <td width="111"> Study </td> <td width="85"> Tobacco Type </td> <td width="272"> Influencing Factors </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Aristei & Pieroni (2008) </td> <td width="85"> Various </td> <td width="272"> Income (+), Age (+), Education (–), Gender (+), Marital Status (+), Social Class (–) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Reggio et al. (2011) </td> <td width="85"> Tobacco </td> <td width="272"> Age (+), Gender (–), Marital Status (–), Residence (+), Unemployment (+), Literacy (+), Ethnicity (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> WHO (2019) </td> <td width="85"> Various </td> <td width="272"> Income (+), Age (+), Residence (+), Gender (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Recher (2020) </td> <td width="85"> Smuggled Cigarettes </td> <td width="272"> Gender (–), Age (+), Income (+), Employment (–), Education (/), Residence (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Nyaguachi et al. (2020) </td> <td width="85"> Tobacco & Alcohol </td> <td width="272"> Household Size (+), Education (+), Alcohol Use (+), Income (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Gorji et al. (2009) </td> <td width="85"> Cigarettes </td> <td width="272"> Price (–), Income (+), Unemployment (+), Literacy (–) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Ebadi et al. (2011) </td> <td width="85"> Cigarettes </td> <td width="272"> Age (+), Education (–), Gender (+), Occupation (+), Residence (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Kouhbor (2013) </td> <td width="85"> Various </td> <td width="272"> Age (+), Education (+), Gender (+), Occupation (+), Income (+), Residence (–), Household Size (–) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Mostafapour & Yazdanpanah (2015) </td> <td width="85"> Tobacco </td> <td width="272"> Age (+), Gender (–), Marital Status (–), Income (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Pirdehghan et al. (2016) </td> <td width="85"> Tobacco </td> <td width="272"> Gender (+), Student Education (–), Head's Education (+), Income (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> National Institute of Health Research (2018) </td> <td width="85"> Various </td> <td width="272"> Age (Men [/] Women [+]), Gender (+), Income (–), Residence (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Ziaoddini & Ziaoddini (2018) </td> <td width="85"> Cigarettes </td> <td width="272"> Gender (+), Age (+) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="111"> Mehri et al. (2023) </td> <td width="85"> Cigarettes </td> <td width="272"> Family (+), Education (–), Gender (+), Income (+) </td> </tr> </tbody> </table>   Methodology A descriptive-analytical design was used, drawing on the 2023 Household Income and Expenditure Survey. Data were analyzed using Access 2013, SPSS18, and Stata12. The Tobit model was selected to account for censored data where many households report zero tobacco expenditures:   Findings 4.1 Descriptive Statistics The sample comprised 37,883 households (19,640 urban; 18,243 rural), with 7,311 (19.3%) reporting tobacco use. Urban users constituted 18%, while rural users were 21%. Annual expenditures and tobacco budget shares are reported in Table2.   Table 2 – Average Annual Household Expenditure by Area (2023) <table> <tbody> <tr> <td> Indicator </td> <td> Rural </td> <td> Urban </td> </tr> <tr> <td> % Using Any Tobacco </td> <td> 21% </td> <td> 18% </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Domestic Cigarette Users </td> <td> 8.9% </td> <td> 8.2% </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Foreign Cigarette Users </td> <td> 8.7% </td> <td> 7.5% </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Tobacco/Pipe/Rolling Paper Users </td> <td> 2.4% </td> <td> 1.5% </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Other Tobacco Product Users </td> <td> 2.7% </td> <td> 1.5% </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Avg. Annual Total Expenditure (IRR) </td> <td> 206,525,000 </td> <td> 110,659,000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Avg. Annual Tobacco Expenditure (IRR) </td> <td> 863,300 </td> <td> 1,103,000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Tobacco Share of Total Expenses </td> <td> 0.42% </td> <td> 1.00% </td> </tr> </tbody> </table>   4.2 Tobit Model Estimation The likelihood ratio (LR) test was significant (LR chi²=1386.09), confirming the model's adequacy. Results are summarized in Table3 below.   Table 3 – Tobit Estimation Results for Tobacco Expenditures <table width="499"> <tbody> <tr> <td> Variable </td> <td> Coefficient </td> <td> Std. Error </td> <td width="80"> z-Value </td> <td width="80"> p-Value </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Log Household Income </td> <td> 0.825 </td> <td> 0.234 </td> <td width="80"> 3.530 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Household Size </td> <td> 1.083 </td> <td> 0.149 </td> <td width="80"> 7.260 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Head’s Age </td> <td> 1.099 </td> <td> 0.067 </td> <td width="80"> 16.500 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Age² </td> <td> –0.010 </td> <td> 0.001 </td> <td width="80"> –15.570 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Number of Literate Members </td> <td> –0.786 </td> <td> 0.178 </td> <td width="80"> –4.410 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Male Head (Dummy) </td> <td> 12.360 </td> <td> 0.590 </td> <td width="80"> 20.940 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Urban Residence (Dummy) </td> <td> –2.315 </td> <td> 0.418 </td> <td width="80"> –5.540 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Head’s Employment Status </td> <td> 1.049 </td> <td> 0.384 </td> <td width="80"> 2.730 </td> <td width="80"> 0.006 </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Constant </td> <td> –73.616 </td> <td> 4.509 </td> <td width="80"> –16.330 </td> <td width="80"> 0.000 </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> Censored: 30,917; Uncensored: 6,966. Discussion and Conclusion Results confirm that tobacco is a normal good in Iran, with income elasticity of 0.825—less than unity but significantly positive, indicating that consumption increases with income. A larger household size also raises tobacco spending. The negative coefficient for literate members highlights the protective effect of education, likely due to health literacy and risk awareness. Older heads exhibit higher consumption up to a point, after which it tapers off (as shown by the negative Age² coefficient). Male-headed households spend notably more on tobacco than female-headed households, aligning with gender-based smoking patterns. And in rural settings, per-household expenditures are higher despite lower total income—likely due to less stringent regulation or cultural acceptance. This study establishes that income, household composition, education, gender, and geographic residence significantly influence tobacco expenditures in Iran. Price-based and socio-economic interventions, particularly directed at rural and less-educated populations, could substantially reduce smoking rates.   Policy recommendations include: <ul> <li>Implementing higher tobacco excise taxes to deter consumption.</li> <li>Introducing public health education, especially among youth and in rural areas.</li> <li>Enforcing strict bans on tobacco advertising and public smoking.</li> <li>Supporting smoking cessation programs at local levels.</li> <li>Strengthening anti-smuggling and border control measures.</li> <li>Promoting inter-sectoral collaboration, consistent with recommendations from the WHO FCTC and World Bank.</li> </ul>   References Moosazadeh, M., Salami, F., Movahednia, M., Amiri, MM. & Afshari, M. (2014) Prevalence of smoking in northwest Iran: a meta-analysis.Electronic physician. 6(1), 734-740 Nemati, S., Rafei, A., Freedman, ND., Fotouhi, A., Asgary, F. & Zendehdel, K. (2017) Cigarette and Water-Pipe Use in Iran: Geographical Distributionand Time Trends among the Adult Population; A Pooled Analysis of National STEPS Surveys, 2006-2009. Archivesof Iranian Medicine (AIM), 20(5), 259-301. Nyagwachia, A.O. Chelwac, G. & Walbeeka, C. (2020) The effect of tobacco- and alcohol-control policies on household spending patterns in Kenya: An approach using matched difference in differences. Social Science & Medicine, 256, 113029.   <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a>Corresponding Author: Ph.D of Economics, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran.  <a href="mailto:mhamjadi@gmail.com">mhamjadi@gmail.com</a> <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> M.A Mathematics, Sistan & Bluchestan University, Zahedan, Iran. m.enhesari90@gmail.comمختلفی در تقاضای محصولات دخانی تأثیرگذار است. هدف از این تحقیق، برآورد تابع تقاضای محصولات دخانی در کشور و محاسبۀ کشش درآمدي آن است. برای این منظور با استفاده از اطلاعات هزینه- درآمد خانوار سال 1402، ابتدا وضعیت هزینه&zwnj;های دخانی بر اساس ویژگی&zwnj;های اقتصادی اجتماعی خانوار بررسی و سپس با استفاده از مدل توبیت، تقاضای دخانیات برآورد شد. نتایج برآورد مدل نشان می&zwnj;دهد که همه متغیرها با اطمینان بیش از 99 درصد به &zwnj;لحاظ آماري معنادار بوده&zwnj;اند. بر اساس برآورد صورت&zwnj;گرفته، کشش درآمدی هزینه&zwnj;های دخانی، معادل 825/0 است؛ بدین &zwnj;معنا که افزایش 1 درصدی درآمد سبب می&zwnj;شود تا خانوار ایرانی به میزان 825/0درصد، هزینه&zwnj;های دخانی خود را افزایش دهد. با توجه به نتایج تحقیق، مقابله با اين پديده خطرناك، همكاري فراگير نهادهاي دولتي و غير دولتي را طلب مي&zwnj;كند. پایش مصرف دخانیات و سیاست&zwnj;های پیشگیرانه، محافظت از مردم در برابر دود دخانیات، کمک به ترک مصرف، هشدار در برابر خطرهای مصرف دخانیات، ممنوعیت تبلیغات و ترویج و حمایت از دخانیات، جلوگیری از قاچاق سیگار و سیاستگذاری مالیاتی از جمله پیشنهادهای این پژوهش است.

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